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Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias.
Abstract
Although it is well-established that vulnerability to negative emotion is associated with attentional bias toward aversive information, the causal basis of this association remains undetermined. Two studies addressed this issue by experimentally inducing differential attentional responses to emotional stimuli using a modified dot probe task, and then examining the impact of such attentional manipulation on subsequent emotional vulnerability. The results supported the hypothesis that the induction of attentional bias should serve to modify emotional vulnerability, as revealed by participants' emotional reactions to a final standardized stress task. These findings provide a sound empirical basis for the previously speculative proposal that attentional bias can causally mediate emotional vulnerability, and they suggest the possibility that cognitive-experimental procedures designed to modify selective information processing may have potential therapeutic value.
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“An initial study found that subliminal ABM training did not induce attentional changes to threatening stimuli (MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, 2002).”
From Advancing the treatment of anxiety disorders in transition‐age youth: a review of the therapeutic effects of unconscious exposure. (2025) · cites this paper as MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, 2002
In the citing paper
“Also, training attentional bias towards negative stimuli increases self-reported distress to a laboratory stressor (MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002)”
From Attentional bias and emotional reactivity as predictors and moderators of behavioral treatment for social phobia (2013) · cites this paper as MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002
In the citing paper
“Selective biases in attention can be modified by a simple computerized technique; the Attention Bias Modification task (ABM), pioneered by Colin MacLeod et al. [19]”
In the citing paper
“These simple, computer-based training tasks have been found to alter processing biases (eg, in attention) in both non-clinical (Browning et al, 2010b; MacLeod et al, 2002) and clinical groups (Amir et al, 2009)”
From Using an Experimental Medicine Model to Explore Combination Effects of Pharmacological and Cognitive Interventions for Depression and Anxiety (2011) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al, 2002
In the citing paper
“In line with previous work, both citalopram (Harmer et al, 2004; Murphy et al, 2009) and positive cognitive bias training (Browning et al, 2010b; MacLeod et al, 2002) on their own produced relatively positive changes in emotional bias, consistent with the idea that this may be a common process in treatments of emotional disorders (Harmer, 2008).”
From Using an Experimental Medicine Model to Explore Combination Effects of Pharmacological and Cognitive Interventions for Depression and Anxiety (2011) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al, 2002
In the citing paper
“After promising preclinical studies (MacLeod et al., 2002), first successful clinical applications have been reported in targeted prevention (See et al., 2009) and in clinically anxious patient groups (Amir et al., 2009;Schmidt et al., 2009), and targeted prevention (See et al., 2009) with maintenance of clinical improvement reported four months after the training (Schmidt et al., 2009).”
From Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation (2011) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al., 2002
In the citing paper
“inducing a negative attentional bias in healthy participants increases anxiety (4)”
From Lateral prefrontal cortex mediates the cognitive modification of attentional bias (2010) · cites this paper as [4]
In the citing paper
“Thus, not only is exposure ineffective for those who are negatively biased, training attention toward threat in non-avoidant populations has also been found to increase rather than decrease anxiety in both adults and children [41,43,44].”
From Can mindfulness be too much of a good thing? The value of a middle way (2019) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“One such potential intervention is attention bias modification (ABM), a computer-delivered treatment for anxiety that emerged from research in experimental psychopathology (MacLeod & Mathews, 2012;MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al., 2002
In the citing paper
“These differing views point to a potential limitation of ABM-threat-avoidance training which focuses on modifying an automatic bias in initial orienting to threat (MacLeod et al., 2002), rather than other attention mechanisms such as top-down attention control which may support emotion regulation and resilience to anxiety (e.g., Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al., 2002
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“Processing biases are malleable –Dysphoric attention can be modified (MacLeod et al., 2002; Wells & Beevers, 2010).”
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“Researchers have found that participants could be trained to attend away from threatening stimuli [16,17].”
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“Attention bias modification training (ABMT; MacLeod et al., 2002; Van Bockstaele et al., 2014) uses simple, brief, computerized techniques to systematically train attention away from threat in order to directly reduce threat bias (Hakamata et al., 2010; Hallion & Ruscio, 2011; MacLeod et al., 2002).”
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“The attentional probe task used to assess and manipulate attentional responding to positive information was closely based on the task previously employed by MacLeod et al. (2002) to manipulate attentional responding to negative information.”
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“In our experiment, we adapted procedures of MacLeod et al. 2002) and Mathews and MacLeod (2002, experiment 8) to examine he effect of attention training on levels of spider-related anxity in spider-fearful individuals.”
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“Also, inducing negative attentional bias increased sadness (MacLeod et al., 2002).”
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“Stress reactivity was assessed by recording emotional responses to an anagram stress task (de Voogd, de Hullu et al., 2016; cf.; MacLeod et al., 2002).”
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“A standard dot-probe task was used to measure attentional bias (MacLeod et al. 2002) both before and after training.”
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“For instance,it has been uncovered in research on attention bias that negative attention bias is related to emotional responses to stress or emotional induction (Macatee et al. , 2017; MacLeod et al. , 2002).”
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“Such results dovetail with the results of CBM studies in anxiety (e.g., Amir et al., 2009; MacLeod et al., 2002) and obesity (Houben et al., 2011).”
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“The earliest training studies concerned the modification of interpretation biases (Grey and Mathews 2000; Mathews and Mackintosh 2000) and attentional biases (MacLeod et al. 2002).”
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“For example, inducing attentional bias increases participants’ vulnerability to anxiety (MacLeod et al. 2002).”
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“In fact, suggestive evidence was found in the (nonclinically anxious) controlgroup: those participants who responded to the attentional training manipulation with the most pronounced attentional avoidance of negative stimuli, showed the strongest attenuation of the negative emotional impact of the subsequent stress pr…”
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Fázio, R. H., Pietri, E. S., Rocklage, M. D., & Shook, N. J. (2014) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2014.09.002 · Cited by 65
Anxiety responses in Balb/c, c57 and CD-1 mice exposed to a novel open space test
Michalíková, S., van Rensburg, R., Chazot, P. L., & Ennaceur, A. (2009) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2009.10.028 · Cited by 56
Rinck, M., Telli, S., Kampmann, I. L., Woud, M. L., Kerstholt, M., te Velthuis, S., Wittkowski, M., & Becker, E. S. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00481 · Cited by 56
“Why Are We Doing This?”: Clinician Helplessness in the Face of Suffering
Back, A. L., Rushton, C. H., Kaszniak, A. W., & Halifax, J. S. (2015) · Journal of Palliative Medicine · doi:10.1089/jpm.2014.0115 · Cited by 56
“8 Extrapolating from this research, we think it is likely that a clinician in the grip of helplessness is likely to proceed with a constricted view of a clinical situation, meaning that important facts will be missed, conclusions drawn pre-maturely, and that the patient’s views, values, and stories…”
Van Bockstaele, B., Verschuere, B., Koster, E. H. W., Tibboel, H., De Houwer, J., & Crombez, G. (2011) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.12.004 · Cited by 55
“However, our sample size was similar (MacLeod et al., 2002) and even larger (Amir, Beard, Burns et al.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialAttentional Bias in Anxiety Disorders Following Cognitive Behavioral Treatment
Tobon, J. I., Ouimet, A. J., & Dozois, D. J. A. (2011) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.25.2.114 · Cited by 55
Change Processes During Cognitive Bias Modification for Obsessive Compulsive Beliefs
Beadel, J. R., Smyth, F. L., & Teachman, B. A. (2013) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-013-9576-6 · Cited by 58
“To assess participants’ intolerance of uncertainty and imperfection, the participants were asked to complete a timed anagram task (adapted from MacLeod et al. 2002).”
MethodNakagawa, A., & Sukigara, M. (2012) · Behavioral and Brain Functions · doi:10.1186/1744-9081-8-40 · Cited by 55
“Growing evidence suggests that attentional bias to threat plays a causal role in individual differences in emotional vulnerability [8,9].”
BackgroundLegerstee, J. S., Tulen, J. H. M., Dierckx, B., Treffers, P. D. A., Verhulst, F. C., & Utens, E. M. W. J. (2010) · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02143.x · Cited by 54
von Ceumern-Lindenstjerna, I.-A., Brunner, R. M., Parzer, P., Mundt, C., Fiedler, P. A., & Resch, F. (2009) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000255960 · Cited by 54
“has distinguished 5 sets of such emotional regulation processes: situation selection, situation modification, attentional deployment, cognitive change, and response modulation. In this connection, attentional deployment means the individual’s ability to adapt his/her own attention to modify emotions in a given situati…”
BackgroundInitial Orienting to Emotional Faces in Female Adolescents with Borderline Personality Disorder
von Ceumern-Lindenstjerna, I.-A., Brunner, R. M., Parzer, P., Mundt, C., Fiedler, P. A., & Resch, F. (2010) · Psychopathology · doi:10.1159/000274176 · Cited by 54
“Another study showed that the induction of attentional orienting to negative stimuli in healthy participants results in pronounced emotional reactions to a subsequent stress task and even provided a sound empirical basis for a causal association between attentional orienting and emotional vulnerability [”
BackgroundDodd, H. F., & Porter, M. A. (2010) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546801003737157 · Cited by 54
“Furthermore, as recent research has demonstrated that subtle attention biases for threatening stimuli may play an important role in the onset of anxiety symptoms (MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002 ; See, MacLeod, & Bridle, 2009 ), it seems possible that a subtle attention bias for happy faces co…”
BackgroundGable, P. A., & Harmon‐Jones, E. (2012) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.02.006 · Cited by 53
Priming God-Related Concepts Increases Anxiety and Task Persistence
Toburen, T., & Meier, B. P. (2010) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2010.29.2.127 · Cited by 53
“The unsolvable anagram paradigm has been used to examine participants' anxious response to and persistence on a difficult task (e.g., MacLeod et al., 2002; Muraven, Tice, & Baumeister, 1998).”
MethodAttentional biases in human anxiety
Valadez, E. A., Pine, D. S., Fox, N. A., & Bar‐Haim, Y. (2022) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2022.104917 · Cited by 65
Obsessive–compulsive symptoms and attentional bias: An eye-tracking methodology
Bradley, M. C., Hanna, D., Wilson, P. C., Scott, G., Quinn, P. C., & Dyer, K. F. W. (2015) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2015.10.007 · Cited by 53
The time course of attentional disengagement from angry faces in social anxiety
Moriya, J., & Tanno, Y. (2010) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2010.08.001 · Cited by 60
“Considering that involuntary attention to the threatening stimuli increased anxiety (MacLeod et al., 2002), the maintenance of attention to the threatening stimuli could enhance anxiety.”
BackgroundClarke, P., MacLeod, C., & Shirazee, N. (2008) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.1.47 · Cited by 53
Self-citationMental health in violent crime victims: Does sexual orientation matter?
Cramer, R. J., McNiel, D. E., Holley, S. R., Shumway, M., & Boccellari, A. (2011) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1037/h0093954 · Cited by 54
Developing and piloting a dot-probe measure of attentional bias for test anxiety
Putwain, D. W., Langdale, H. C., Woods, K. A., & Nicholson, L. J. (2011) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.02.002 · Cited by 53
“Evidence from modified dot-probe and emotional Stroop tasks suggest that both clinical and high trait anxiety are characterised by an attentional bias, especially when under high stress conditions (e.g., Bar-Haim et al., 2007; Cisler & Koster, 2010; Mathews & MacLeod, 2002).”
InfluentialNegativity bias for sad faces in depression: An event-related potential study
Dai, Q., Wei, J., Shu, X., & Feng, Z. (2016) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2016.10.003 · Cited by 53
“Meanwhile, they also showed a negativity bias (faster responses and lower valence rating) for sad faces, which was similar to the MDD group, possibly a latent cognitive trait associated with the vulnerability of depression (MacLeod et al., 2002).”
ResultImaging the neural effects of cognitive bias modification training
Wiers, C. E., & Wiers, R. W. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.07.041 · Cited by 52
Is manipulation of mood a critical component of cognitive bias modification procedures?
Standage, H., Ashwin, C., & Fox, E. (2009) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2009.08.005 · Cited by 60
Attentional Bias and Craving in Smokers: The Impact of a Single Attentional Training Session
McHugh, R. K., Murray, H. W., Hearon, B. A., Calkins, A. W., & Otto, M. W. (2010) · Nicotine & Tobacco Research · doi:10.1093/ntr/ntq171 · Cited by 55
Attentional bias in untreated panic disorder
Reinecke, A., Cooper, M., Favaron, E., Massey-Chase, R. A., & Harmer, C. J. (2010) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.020 · Cited by 53
“Study paradigms assessing the effect of cognitive bias trainingonanxiety symptoms (Mathews andMackintosh, 2000;MacLeod et al., 2002) would be aworthwhile continuation of this research to explorewhether thesebiases alsoact as a vulnerability factor in the onset of a panic disorder.”
Metadata
- Authors
- MacLeod, C., Rutherford, E., Campbell, L., Ebsworthy, G., & Holker, L.
- Affiliations
- The University of Western Australia (AU)
- ORCID
- MacLeod, Colin
- Venue
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology
- Published
- 2002-02
- Volume
- 111
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 107-123
- ISSN
- 0021-843X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1846
- OpenAlex
- W2122758649
- Cited by
- 1,334
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 54 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 80 · 2015: 96 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 96 · 2012: 83
- FWCI
- 32.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- attentional bias, emotional vulnerability, selective attention, negative emotions, dot-probe task, stress reactivity, causal mediation analysis, cognitive bias modification
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Psychology, Adolescent, Adult, Affect, Attention, Female, Humans, Male
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