Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation

May combine two claims.

Both heavy drinkers and alcoholic patients have an approach bias for alcohol.

“Using this task, it has been shown that both heavy drinkers (Wiers et al., 2009b) and alcoholic patients (Wiers et al., 2011) have an approach bias for alcohol.”

• cites Wiers et al., 2009bNot checked yet

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• cites Wiers et al., 2011 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Working memory training has been used successfully in addiction, helping problem drinkers with strong positive memory associations for alcohol, presumably by helping them overcome the bias to approach alcohol driven by those associations.

“WM training has recently also been used successfully in addiction (Houben et al., 2011b), where it was found that it helped problem drinkers with strong positive memory associations for alcohol, presumably because it helped them to overcome the bias to approach alcohol, driven by these associations.”

• cites Houben et al., 2011bNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The first controlled training CBM in the alcohol domain found a change in patients' attentional bias for alcohol after training versus irrelevant control training, and an effect on post-treatment abstinence after three months.

“The first controlled training CBM in the alcohol domain (Schoenmakers et al., 2010) found a change in patients' attentional bias for alcohol after training (vs.irrelevant control training) and an effect on post-treatment abstinence after three months.”

• cites Schoenmakers et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

A recent meta-analysis in anxiety found a medium effect size (d = .61) for attentional bias modification.

“A recent meta-analysis in the domain of anxiety found a medium effect size for this type of CBM (d = .61).”

May combine two claims.

Training attention towards or away from fear stimuli (angry faces) modifies relationships between lateral prefrontal and posterior (fusiform face area) regions, as evidenced by the need to recruit lateral prefrontal cortex to overcome the trained bias.

“It appears that training attention towards or away from fear stimuli (angry faces) modifies relationships between lateral prefrontal and posterior (fusiform face area) regions, as evidenced by the need to recruit lateral prefrontal cortex to overcome the trained bias (Browning et al., 2010).”

• cites Browning et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In a preclinical study, generalized effects of approach-avoidance training were found in the same task (novel pictures) and in a different task using words (an approach-avoid alcohol IAT).

“Generalized effects were found both in the same task (novel pictures, close generalization) and in a different task, employing words instead of pictures: an approach avoid alcohol Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald et al., 1998).”

• cites Greenwald et al., 1998 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

This effect generalized to untrained pictures in the CBM task and to an IAT categorizing alcohol and soft-drink words with approach and avoidance words.

“This effect generalized to untrained pictures in the task used in the CBM and to an IAT, in which alcohol and soft-drink words were categorized with approach and avoidance words.”

May combine two claims.

Most adolescents with substance use problems do not believe they have a problem; in one study, while 75% of 96 late adolescents met criteria for substance use problems, only one indicated having a problem.

“While 75% of the sample of 96 late adolescents met criteria for substance use problems, only one individual indicated to have a problem, Wiers et al., 2005).”

• cites Wiers et al., 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Adolescence is the developmental interval between childhood and adulthood and occurs in humans and other mammals.

“Adolescence is the developmental period between childhood and adulthood, shared by humans and other mammal species (Dahl, 2004;Spear, 2000).”

• cites Dahl, 2004 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Spear, 2000 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Different developmental timetables of motivation-related and control-related brain regions may produce greater adolescent risk taking, and drug-use neural effects may worsen this.

“The differential developmental trajectories of brain regions involved in motivation and control processes may lead to adolescents' increased risk taking in general, which may be exacerbated by the neural consequences of drug use.”

May combine two claims.

In a simulated driving game, the presence of peers increases risk taking in adolescents but not in adults.

“the presence of peers leads to increased risk taking in adolescents (but not adults) when making choices between driving through versus stopping at traffic intersections with a yellow light”

• cites Chein et al., 2011 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Gardner and Steinberg, 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

During adolescence, independence from parents increases and peers become more important.

“adolescents achieving greater independence from their parents and, in turn, peers growing in importance”

• cites Blakemore, 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Brown, 2004Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

A model-based fMRI study found increased striatal neural signals for positive prediction errors in adolescents compared with children and adults, possibly contributing to greater risk taking.

“a recent model-based fMRI study showed increased neural signals for positive prediction errors in the striatum in adolescents (compared to children and adults), again possibly contributing to increased risk-taking behaviors in this age group”

• cites Cohen et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

In later phases of addiction, habitual responses become important and cues automatically trigger approach reactions outside voluntary control.

“In later phases of addiction, habitual responses become important, with cues automatically triggering approach-reactions, outside voluntary control”

• cites Everitt and Robbins, 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Cauffman et al. found an inverted U-shape on the Iowa Gambling Task, but the measure reflected approach motivation rather than risk taking itself.

“Cauffman et al. (2010) also found an inverted U-shape in a risky choice task (the Iowa Gambling Task), but the measured behavior captured approach motivation (or sensitivity to expected value) rather than risk taking itself.”

• cites Cauffman et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Several laboratory studies found monotonically decreasing risk taking across childhood, adolescence, and adulthood, possibly because the tasks captured cold cognitive processes.

“several other laboratory studies have found evidence for monotonically decreasing risk-taking levels across childhood, adolescence, and adults, which may indicate that these tasks captured more the cognitive or cold processes involved in evaluating risks”

• cites Crone et al., 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Weller et al., 2010Not checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Steinberg et al. found an inverted U-shape with a self-report measure, but their behavioral measure showed adolescents taking fewer risks than children and adults.

“Steinberg et al. (2008) found an inverted U-shape pattern with a self-report measure, but their behavioral measure (a task similar to the one used in Gardner and Steinberg, 2005) showed a developmental pattern resembling a non-inverted U-shape with adolescents apparently taking less risks than children and adults.”

• cites Steinberg et al., 2008Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Most adolescents experiment with at least some addictive substances, but only a few become addicted.

“while most adolescents experiment with at least some addictive substances, only few of them become addicted.”

May combine two claims.

Generalizing animal evidence on binge drinking to humans is difficult because human cognitive control over emotion may develop longer and participants cannot be randomly assigned.

“The difficulty with this line of evidence lies in the generalization to humans, where cognitive control over emotional processes may develop over a longer period and to a greater extent and where participants cannot be randomly assigned to conditions.”

May combine two claims.

Mounting evidence suggests that adolescent substance use may exaggerate the normal inverted U-shaped curve of risky behavior and may in some cases postpone or prevent the usual early-adulthood decline in risky behaviors.

“there is mounting evidence that adolescent substance use may exaggerate the normal inverted U curve of risky behavior in adolescence, and may in some cases (related to heavy substance use and/or premorbid levels of impulsivity) postpone or even prevent the decrease in risky behaviors normally starting in early adulthood.”

May combine two claims.

Higher working memory capacity and interference control capacity weaken the impact of alcohol-related automatic processes.

“findings showing that higher working memory capacity (Grenard et al., 2008;Thush et al., 2008) and interference control capacity (Houben and Wiers, 2009;Wiers et al., 2009a) weaken the impact of alcohol-related automatic processes.”

• cites Grenard et al., 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Houben and Wiers, 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

A slowly activated response may eventually yield a better ultimate outcome than a more immediately available response with a strongly associated payoff.

“A slowly activated response may eventually be found to provide a better ultimate outcome (i.e., match to cue-evoked goals) than a more immediately available response with a strongly associated payoff.”

May combine two claims.

Reflective processing exists as a pattern of interactions among lower-level elements, not as a single element separable from reinforced associations or affective-motivational processing, nor as identifiable with neural systems for top-down biasing.

“reflective processing (or, here synonymously, controlled processing) exists here as a pattern of interactions between elements at lower levels of description, rather than as any single element of the model separable from reinforced associations or affective-motivational processing, or identifiable with neural systems involved with top-down biasing.”

May combine two claims.

The literature on adolescent risk taking and addiction converges on the idea of dual processes: two qualitatively different types of process underlie behavior and may compete for control.

“The literature on adolescent risk-taking and addiction converges on the idea of dual processes, i.e., the existence of two qualitatively different types of process that underlie and may compete for control of behavior”

• cites Evans, 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Strack and Deutsch, 2004 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

The binary characteristics that define impulsive or automatic versus reflective or controlled processing do not perfectly covary, making a simple binary division of processes untenable.

“the sets of binary characteristics that define impulsive/automatic versus reflective/controlled processing do not perfectly covary; e.g., a process may be efficient (a property of automatic processes) but still depend on intentions (a property of controlled processes)”

• cites Bargh, 1994Not checked yet

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• cites Evans, 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Moors and De Houwer, 2006Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The time allowed for searching responses and outcomes is determined by processes that defer response execution.

“The time allowed for the search for responses and outcomes is determined by the set of processes that defer response execution”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

The essential role of motivation in dual-process theories is often unexplained, risking the implicit introduction of a motivational homunculus.

“the essential role of motivation in dual-process theories, that is, why controlled processing does what and when, is often unexplained.This risks implicitly introducing a motivational homunculus”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Models or metaphors that define dual processes as dual systems have been criticized as lacking strong evidence.

“models or metaphors in which dual processes are defined in terms of dual systems (rather than sets of essential properties) have been criticized as lacking strong evidence”

• cites Keren and Schul, 2009Not checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

There is increasing interest in integrating motivation and reinforcement with controlled processing.

“there has been increasing interest in the integration of motivation and reinforcement on the one hand and controlled processing on the other”

• cites Hazy et al., 2006 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Pessoa, 2009 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Robbins, 2007 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

White et al. found that impulsive behaviors prospectively predicted binge drinking and that binge drinking predicted increases in impulsive behaviors.

“White et al., 2011) found that impulsive behaviors prospectively predicted binge drinking and also that binge drinking predicted increases in impulsive behaviors.”

• cites White et al., 2011 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Some form of prior learning must underlie the evaluation and selection of top-down biasing in reflective processing.

“Evidently, some form of prior learning must underlie the evaluation and selection of top-down biasing in reflective processing”

May combine two claims.

Conditioning processes and learned associations exist at a different level of description than reflective or automatic processing and can play a role in either.

“conditioning processes and learned associations exist at a different level of description than either reflective or automatic processing; that is, such processes do not need to be identified as either reflective or automatic, but could play a role in either.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

The R3 model predicts that combining changes at multiple points (e.g., association strength, expected outcomes, temporal threshold) could produce significant changes in system behavior.

“The model suggests that especially combining such changes could result in significant changes in the system's behavior.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Outcomes provide positive or negative feedback to responses during reprocessing.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Stimuli activate associated responses, including top-down biasing, which in turn activate expected outcomes via stimulus-response-outcome associations.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: A given outcome is not uniquely coupled to a specific response; the association is transient and flexible.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The time allowed for searching for responses and outcomes is determined by processes that defer response execution.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Reflective processing exists as a pattern of interactions between lower-level elements, not as a single separable element.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

EEG and MEG may be an important method for testing hypotheses about the dynamics of reflective processing.

“Further, electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) may form a potentially important method for testing hypotheses concerning the dynamics of reflective processing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

If care is taken to disentangle theoretical constructs at different levels of description, dual-processing may still be considered a valid theoretical foundation for work on addiction and adolescence.

“Thus, if care is taken to disentangle theoretical constructs that may exist at different levels of description then dual-processing may still be considered a valid theoretical foundation for work on addiction and adolescence.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Outcomes provide positive or negative feedback to responses during reprocessing.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Stimuli activate associated responses, including top-down biasing, which in turn activate expected outcomes via stimulus-response-outcome associations.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: A given outcome is not uniquely coupled to a specific response; the association is transient and flexible.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The time allowed for searching for responses and outcomes is determined by processes that defer response execution.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Reflective processing exists as a pattern of interactions between lower-level elements, not as a single separable element.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

From the R3 perspective, tDCS effects could be explained by increased ability to find an escape route from a craving cycle, as anodal prefrontal stimulation would facilitate activation of necessary cognitive representations and top-down biasing.

“From the R 3 perspective this could be explained in terms of increased ability to find an escape route from a craving cycle, as anodal prefrontal stimulation would be expected to facilitate the activation of necessary cognitive representations and top-down biasing.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

An approach bias for substance-related stimuli has recently been addressed with re-training.

“Recently, another cognitive bias in addiction has been addressed with re-training: an approach-bias for substance-related stimuli.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

Most work on cognitive bias modification has been on attentional bias modification, with promising clinical effects in anxiety and alcoholism.

“Most work has been done on attentional bias modification, with promising clinical effects in anxiety and alcoholism.”

May combine two claims.

The top-down biasing aspect of working memory, or executive control functions, as well as control of access to WM, are trainable.

“This suggests that the top-down biasing aspect of working memory, or executive control functions, as well as control of access to WM are trainable.”

May combine two claims.

After promising preclinical studies, first successful clinical applications of attentional bias modification have been reported in targeted prevention and in clinically anxious patient groups, with maintenance of clinical improvement four months after training.

“After promising preclinical studies (MacLeod et al., 2002), first successful clinical applications have been reported in targeted prevention (See et al., 2009) and in clinically anxious patient groups (Amir et al., 2009;Schmidt et al., 2009), and targeted prevention (See et al., 2009) with maintenance of clinical improvement reported four months after the training (Schmidt et al., 2009).”

• cites MacLeod et al., 2002 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites See et al., 2009 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Amir et al., 2009 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Very fine-grained temporal coding of neural activity could be of fundamental importance to brain function.

“Further, the very fine-grained temporal coding of neural activity (Roelfsema et al., 1997;Singer et al., 1996;Tallon-Baudry et al., 1999) could be of fundamental importance to brain function.”

• cites Roelfsema et al., 1997 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Singer et al., 1996Not checked yet

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• cites Tallon-Baudry et al., 1999 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Oscillations in neural activity appear to be involved in working memory capacity, task set and movement preparation, and separation of subsets of information currently in working memory.

“as oscillations in neural activity appear to be involved in working memory capacity (Benchenane et al., 2011;Kaminski et al., 2011;Moran et al., 2010), task set and movement preparation (Gladwin et al., 2006(Gladwin et al., , 2008;;Gladwin and De Jong, 2005) and the separation of subsets of information currently in working memory (Lisman, 2005;Sauseng et al., 2010).”

• cites Benchenane et al., 2011 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Kaminski et al., 2011 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Moran et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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May combine two claims.

Effects of tDCS on concurrent training could be persistent, either via plasticity or by aiding the subject to perform the training task at a higher level.

“While the immediate effect of tDCS are temporary, its effects on concurrent training could be persistent, either via plasticity or by aiding the subject in performing the training task at a higher level of performance.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable). May combine two claims.

From the above perspective, interventions can be seen as beneficially biased learning environments in which reinforcement can increase the chance of successful controlled processing or reduce the need for it.

“From the above perspective, interventions can be seen as beneficially biased learning environments, in which reinforcement can be provided that will either increase the chance of successful controlled processing, or reduce the need for it.”

May combine two claims.

If controlled processing is a dynamic set of interacting factors, then even small effects may have significant results; for example, learning to delay response selection slightly may allow a qualitatively different set of responses to be selected and reinforced.

“However, note that if controlled processing is indeed a dynamic set of interacting factors, then even small effects may have significant results; e.g., if participants learn to delay response selection even slightly, this may allow a qualitatively different set of responses to be selected and reinforced (Siegel, 1978).”

• cites Siegel, 1978 sourceNot checked yet

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• AssumptionRests on an assumption: Controlled processing is a dynamic set of interacting factors.

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

Adolescents may not yet have learned that stressful emotional situations evoking fast responses can sometimes benefit from a more reflective state.

“Alternatively, the criterion for settling on a response is influenced by emotional or motivational salience in a particular task context: perhaps adolescents have yet to learn that stressful, emotional situations that may naturally evoke a tendency for fast responses may sometimes benefit from a more reflective state.”

May combine two claims.

Due to their high temporal resolution and specific relationships to neural activity, EEG and MEG can complement other neuroimaging modalities and allow tests of sub-second timing of events in reflective processing.

“Due to their high temporal resolution and their specific relationships to neural activity such methods can complement other neuroimaging modalities, allowing tests of the sub-second timing of events involved in reflective processing.”

May combine two claims.

tDCS can facilitate dorsolateral prefrontal activity, leading to enhanced working memory and reductions in craving for alcohol, food, and cigarettes.

“In addition to behavioral WM training, there is also emerging evidence that low voltage electrical stimulation at the scalp (transcranial Direct Current Stimulation, or tDCS) can facilitate dorsolateral prefrontal activity, leading to enhanced working memory (Fregni et al., 2005) and reductions in craving for alcohol (Boggio et al., 2008), food (Fregni et al., 2008b) and cigarettes (Boggio et al.,”

• cites Fregni et al., 2005 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Boggio et al., 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Fregni et al., 2008bNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based).

Relationships between stress and addictive behavior and drug-related biases may reflect a narrowing of the time window relative to reprocessing time required to select a slowly activated response or one whose superior expected outcome is slower to retrieve.

“Similarly, the relationships between stress and addictive behavior and drug-related biases may reflect a narrowing of the time window relative to the reprocess-ing time required to select a slowly activated response, or one in which the superior value of the expected outcome is slower to be retrieved.”

Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

The criterion for settling on a response is influenced by emotional or motivational salience in a particular task context.

“Alternatively, the criterion for settling on a response is influenced by emotional or motivational salience in a particular task context: perhaps adolescents have yet to learn that stressful, emotional situations that may naturally evoke a tendency for fast responses may sometimes benefit from a more reflective state.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based).

The time allowed for searching better outcomes and the internal criteria for settling on a preferred cognitive action may play similar roles.

“The time allowed for searching for better outcomes, and the internal criteria for settling on a currently preferred (cognitive) action may play similar roles.”

• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Outcomes provide positive or negative feedback to responses during reprocessing.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Stimuli activate associated responses, including top-down biasing, which in turn activate expected outcomes via stimulus-response-outcome associations.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: A given outcome is not uniquely coupled to a specific response; the association is transient and flexible.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: The time allowed for searching for responses and outcomes is determined by processes that defer response execution.
• AssumptionThe authors state this as an assumption: Reflective processing exists as a pattern of interactions between lower-level elements, not as a single separable element.

May combine two claims.

This approach bias has been documented for cigarette cues in smokers, marijuana cues in marijuana users, and alcohol in heavy drinkers.

“This bias has been documented for a variety of substances with a variety of instruments: for cigarette-cues in smokers (Mogg et al., 2003), for marijuana-cues in marijuana users (Field et al., 2006), and for alcohol in heavy drinkers (Field et al., 2008;Ostafin and Palfai, 2006;Palfai and Ostafin, 2003).”

• cites Mogg et al., 2003 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Field et al., 2006 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Field et al., 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

To avoid subsequent behavioral consequences, an alternative response must be effectively available: existing as a neural representation, associated with the stimulus, associated with alternative positive outcomes, and selectable within the context's reprocessing time.

“To avoid subsequent behavioral consequences, an alternative response would need to be effectively available, i.e., existing as a neural representation, associated with the stimulus, associated with alternative positive outcomes and selectable within the reprocessing time associated with the context.”

May combine two claims.

Other paradigms such as evaluative conditioning, neurofeedback training, and inhibition training with problem-related stimuli have shown promising results but have only been tested in student samples.

“In addition to these re-training paradigms, other paradigms have been developed which demonstrated promising results, such as evaluative conditioning (Houben et al., 2010), neurofeedback training (Sokhadze et al., 2008) and inhibition training in the context of problemrelated stimuli (Houben et al., 2011a), but these procedures have as yet only been tested in student samples.”

• cites Houben et al., 2010 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Sokhadze et al., 2008 sourceNot checked yet

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• cites Houben et al., 2011aNot checked yet

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Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

Motivation to participate in training is an important issue, especially for adolescent addiction problems.

“One important issue, which is especially important in the context of adolescent addiction problems, is motivation to participate in a training (or more generally in any intervention).”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

The integration of motivation and control appears critical not only to individual development but also to further development of theory in cognitive neuroscience.

“In conclusion, the integration of motivation and control appears critical not only to the development of individuals, but also to the further development of theory in cognitive neuroscience.”

May combine two claims.

The literature on adolescence dovetails with that on addiction in theoretical bases (imbalances described as dual processes) and in likely substantial interactions: adolescent vulnerabilities map onto what makes addictive substances harmful.

“The literature on adolescence dovetails with that on addiction, both in terms of the theoretical bases -imbalances are proposed that can be broadly described in terms of dual processes -but also in terms of likely substantial interactions: the vulnerabilities of adolescents map onto what makes addictive substances harmful.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Developments in dual-process models may provide stronger scientific grounding for cognitive bias modification and novel intervention targets, such as conditioned delaying of response selection in risky situations.

“Developments in dualprocess models may provide stronger scientific grounding for cognitive bias modification as well as novel intervention targets, such as the conditioned delaying of response selection in risky situations.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

Adolescents with substance use problems who recognize a problem must be convinced that training makes sense.

“Second, should they recognize that they have a problem (or at least that reducing substance use might not be a bad idea), they have to be convinced that it makes sense to do the training.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable), S4 (based).

Maladaptive learning processes leading to states of reflective and impulsive processing may be essential to understanding motivated behavior.

“In particular, the (mal-) adaptive learning processes leading to states of reflective and impulsive processing may be essential to understanding motivated behavior.”

Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S4 (based). May combine two claims.

Dual-process models of addiction provide hypotheses why adolescents are at increased risk of substance abuse and have suggested interventions already successfully applied in adults.

“In practical terms, dualprocess models of addiction not only provide hypotheses why adolescents are at increased risk of substance abuse, but have also suggested interventions that have already been successfully applied in adults.”