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Selective attention and emotional vulnerability: Assessing the causal basis of their association through the experimental manipulation of attentional bias.
Abstract
Although it is well-established that vulnerability to negative emotion is associated with attentional bias toward aversive information, the causal basis of this association remains undetermined. Two studies addressed this issue by experimentally inducing differential attentional responses to emotional stimuli using a modified dot probe task, and then examining the impact of such attentional manipulation on subsequent emotional vulnerability. The results supported the hypothesis that the induction of attentional bias should serve to modify emotional vulnerability, as revealed by participants' emotional reactions to a final standardized stress task. These findings provide a sound empirical basis for the previously speculative proposal that attentional bias can causally mediate emotional vulnerability, and they suggest the possibility that cognitive-experimental procedures designed to modify selective information processing may have potential therapeutic value.
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“An initial study found that subliminal ABM training did not induce attentional changes to threatening stimuli (MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, 2002).”
From Advancing the treatment of anxiety disorders in transition‐age youth: a review of the therapeutic effects of unconscious exposure. (2025) · cites this paper as MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, 2002
In the citing paper
“Also, training attentional bias towards negative stimuli increases self-reported distress to a laboratory stressor (MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002)”
From Attentional bias and emotional reactivity as predictors and moderators of behavioral treatment for social phobia (2013) · cites this paper as MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002
In the citing paper
“Selective biases in attention can be modified by a simple computerized technique; the Attention Bias Modification task (ABM), pioneered by Colin MacLeod et al. [19]”
In the citing paper
“These simple, computer-based training tasks have been found to alter processing biases (eg, in attention) in both non-clinical (Browning et al, 2010b; MacLeod et al, 2002) and clinical groups (Amir et al, 2009)”
From Using an Experimental Medicine Model to Explore Combination Effects of Pharmacological and Cognitive Interventions for Depression and Anxiety (2011) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al, 2002
In the citing paper
“In line with previous work, both citalopram (Harmer et al, 2004; Murphy et al, 2009) and positive cognitive bias training (Browning et al, 2010b; MacLeod et al, 2002) on their own produced relatively positive changes in emotional bias, consistent with the idea that this may be a common process in treatments of emotional disorders (Harmer, 2008).”
From Using an Experimental Medicine Model to Explore Combination Effects of Pharmacological and Cognitive Interventions for Depression and Anxiety (2011) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al, 2002
In the citing paper
“After promising preclinical studies (MacLeod et al., 2002), first successful clinical applications have been reported in targeted prevention (See et al., 2009) and in clinically anxious patient groups (Amir et al., 2009;Schmidt et al., 2009), and targeted prevention (See et al., 2009) with maintenance of clinical improvement reported four months after the training (Schmidt et al., 2009).”
From Addiction, adolescence, and the integration of control and motivation (2011) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al., 2002
In the citing paper
“inducing a negative attentional bias in healthy participants increases anxiety (4)”
From Lateral prefrontal cortex mediates the cognitive modification of attentional bias (2010) · cites this paper as [4]
In the citing paper
“Thus, not only is exposure ineffective for those who are negatively biased, training attention toward threat in non-avoidant populations has also been found to increase rather than decrease anxiety in both adults and children [41,43,44].”
From Can mindfulness be too much of a good thing? The value of a middle way (2019) · cites this paper as [43]
In the citing paper
“One such potential intervention is attention bias modification (ABM), a computer-delivered treatment for anxiety that emerged from research in experimental psychopathology (MacLeod & Mathews, 2012;MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy, & Holker, 2002).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al., 2002
In the citing paper
“These differing views point to a potential limitation of ABM-threat-avoidance training which focuses on modifying an automatic bias in initial orienting to threat (MacLeod et al., 2002), rather than other attention mechanisms such as top-down attention control which may support emotion regulation and resilience to anxiety (e.g., Derryberry & Rothbart, 1997).”
From Anxiety and attention to threat: cognitive mechanisms and treatment with attention bias modification (2016) · cites this paper as MacLeod et al., 2002
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Reward sensitivity predicts ice cream-related attentional bias assessed by inattentional blindness
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When We Should Worry More: Using Cognitive Bias Modification to Drive Adaptive Health Behaviour
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“CBM tasks aimed at reducing selective attention for negative information (CBM-A) repeatedly expose participants to a contingency that encourages participants to look away from threatening information and instead attend to neutral or more positive information [6].”
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“If effects such as those we found here would hold in other studies, it would suggest that future interventions might do well to focus on reducing the effects of an overactive illness memory network—for example, by pairing negative illness memories with positive stimuli (evaluative conditioning) or by reducing the atte…”
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“…are likely to interpret environmental stimuli as emotional more frequently because of their attentional bias toward mood congruent stimuli (MacLeod et al. 2002), resulting in a greater number of emotional responses throughout the day that are poorly regulated due to both skill…”
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“In healthy participants, MacLeod et al. (2002) established a negative AB by having probes reliably replace negative stimuli, and established a bias away from negative stimuli in another group of participants by having probes reliably replace neutral stimuli.”
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“In fact, it has been demonstrated that CBM attenuates the effects of stressors on symptoms of depression and anxiety [41, 42].”
BackgroundDynamic measures of anxiety-related threat bias: Links to stress reactivity
Egan, L. J., & Dennis‐Tiwary, T. A. (2018) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-018-9674-6 · Cited by 16
“, greater anxious mood in response to a stressful task or challenge), strengthening the plausibility of a causal link between the threat bias and the development of anxiety (Clarke et al. 2008; Eldar et al. 2008; MacLeod et al. 2002).”
BackgroundSport-related concussion is associated with elevated anxiety, but not attentional bias to threat
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“a causal factor in the development of anxiety (24,25,36).”
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“Experimental tasks, using modified dot-probe tasks, where probes always follow the location of a threat word, have provided reliable evidence that attention bias can play a causal role in anxiety and worry vulnerability (Mathews & MacLeod, 2002; MacLeod et al., 2002).”
MethodAn Experimental Investigation of Standard Setting in Clinical Perfectionism
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Valence weiGhtinG aS a Predictor oF eMotional reactiVity to a StreSSFul Situation
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“The stressful situation used in the current studies was modeled after an anagram task employed in the Macleod et al. (2002) experiment.”
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“Research has, however, demonstrated through longitudinal (Warren, Emde and Sroufe, 2000) and experimental studies (MacLeod et al., 2002) that they can play a causal role in its onset.”
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“After this fixation cross, participants were presented with two stimuli arranged vertically, one neutral and one threatening, for 2000 ms, maintaining a 1:2 ratio of fixation time to stimuli time (following (MacLeod et al., 2002).”
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Self-esteem vulnerabilities are associated with cued attentional biases toward rejection
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“CBM-A was originally developed to manipulate attention selectivity in the context of anxiety research where it is used to change participant’s attention selectivity away from threatening cues to more non-threatening cues (MacLeod et al. 2002).”
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“Experiments show, for example, that one can train an attentional bias to threat over time, and this produces elevated anxiety in response to a laboratory stressor (MacLeod et al., 2002).”
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“This target is systematically presented at the location of the neutral information [2].”
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“Indeed, attentional training has been effective in reducing symptoms of anxiety (Bar-Haim, 2010; Li et al., 2008; Hakamata et al., 2010), as well as emotional reactivity to stress (MacLeod et al., 2002; Amir et al., 2008).”
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“Before the formal experiment, there were at least 20 trials for practice to ensure that the participants understood the instructions.”
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“ABM was achieved via a modified version (MacLeod et al., 2002) of the dot-probe task.”
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“This is seen as an implicit and gradual process (MacLeod et al., 2002; Koster et al., 2009; Kemps et al., 2014), although there is still considerable uncertainty as to the precise mechanisms mediating the effect (Heeren et al., 2013).”
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“A number of studies have investigated cognitive bias modification (CBM) procedures (Koster, Fox, &MacLeod, 2009) with several training paradigms, including the dot-probe task (e.g. Macleod et al., 2002; Wells & Beevers, 2010) and the spatial cueing task (Baert, De Raedt, Schacht, & Koster, 2010).”
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“Furthermore, researchers found that GAD and MDD manifested different biological characteristics (Martin and Nemeroff, 2010; Weinberg et al., 2012).”
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“This study supports the assumption by MacLeod et al. (2002) that attention training is successful in modifying attention bias, even in specific fears for which ABM has not been successful yet (Reese et al., 2010; Van Bockstaele et al., 2011).”
BackgroundResultTrauma processing and the development of posttraumatic stress disorder
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Perseverative Cognition, Psychopathology, and Somatic Health
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“Based on the premise that attentional bias to threat can cause anxiety, ABM was originally designed to train participants to focus attention on non-threatening information to reduce attentional bias to threat, and in turn anxiety (MacLeod et al. 2002).”
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Self-citationNeurocognitive Function as a Treatment Target for Tobacco Use Disorder
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“All conditions (standard ABMT, control ABMT, and gamified ABMT) will use a modified version of the dot-probe task [5].”
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A Construct Validation of the Neutral Objects Satisfaction Questionnaire (NOSQ)
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“Median RTs will be used because distributions of mean RTs are often reported as skewed [33,63]; therefore we do not need to set parameters for outlying RTs.”
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“Research suggests, that ABM effects may only become apparent over time, when the newly acquainted cognitive processing style is repeatedly deployed in emotional daily-life situations [17, 29, 40].”
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Kang, E., Clarkson, T., Keifer, C. M., Rosen, T. E., & Lerner, M. D. (2019) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.05.010 · Cited by 12
McClure, E. B., & Pine, D. S. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470939406.ch12 · Cited by 13
Allen, K. B., Tan, P. Z., Sullivan, J. A., Baumgardner, M., Hunter, H., & Noose, S. K. (2023) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-023-00458-z · Cited by 14
“…of youth with elevated and clinically significant anxiety (Bar-Haim et al., 2007; Roy et al., 2008), and there is evidence that children may be at greater risk for developing anxiety disorders when they show elevations in attentional threat bias (Macleod et al., 2002; Waters et al., 2008, 2010).”
BackgroundTu, Y., Su, Y., Yang, K., Jin, L., Li, B., Chen, W., Ye, Y., & Wu, D. (2025) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-024-07261-1 · Cited by 16
“For example, through repeated practice, individuals can learn to shift their attention from negative information to neutral or positive information (MacLeod et al, 2002).”
Interpretive habit is strengthened by cognitive bias modification
Hertel, P. T., Holmes, M., & Benbow, A. (2013) · Memory · doi:10.1080/09658211.2013.820326 · Cited by 12
Duque, A., & Vázquez, C. (2018) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22652 · Cited by 13
Zhang, J., Xu, X., Wang, Z., & Jiang, S. (2021) · Annals of Palliative Medicine · doi:10.21037/apm-21-782 · Cited by 12
Hakamata, Y., Matsui, M., & Tagaya, H. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00881 · Cited by 12
“Attentional bias refers to a tendency to quickly identify and easily dwell on emotional stimuli (MacLeod et al., 2002).”
BackgroundThreat‐related attentional bias in anorexia nervosa
Schober, I., Renwick, B., de Jong, H., Kenyon, M., Sharpe, H., Jacobi, C., & Schmidt, U. H. (2013) · International Journal of Eating Disorders · doi:10.1002/eat.22215 · Cited by 12
Vassilopoulos, S. P., Blackwell, S. E., Misailidi, P., Kyritsi, A., & Ayfanti, M. (2013) · Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1017/s1352465813000301 · Cited by 13
“Past studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of the insoluble anagram task in elevating negative mood in participants (MacLeod, Rutherford, Campbell, Ebsworthy and Holker, 2002).”
Social Stress, Affect, and Neural Function in Adolescence
McClure, E. B., & Pine, D. S. (2007) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195306255.003.0010 · Cited by 12
Kuckertz, J. M., & Amir, N. (2017) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-803457-6.00019-2 · Cited by 16
Parsafar, P., & Davis, E. L. (2019) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13070 · Cited by 9
The Biological Bridge Between Behavioral Inhibition and Psychopathology
Sylvester, C. M., & Pine, D. S. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-98077-5_14 · Cited by 12
Price, R. B., Woody, M. L., Panny, B., & Siegle, G. J. (2019) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/2167702619842556 · Cited by 12
“More specifically, in the dominant ABM paradigm (MacLeod et al., 2002), participants practice repeated trials of the dot-probe task in which a probe stimulus always (or nearly always) appears in the previous location of a non-threat-related (e.g., neutral) cue as opposed to a threat-related cue,…”
BackgroundDondzilo, L., Rieger, E., Shao, R., & Bell, J. (2020) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2020.1718616 · Cited by 12
“In line with the well-established ABM protocol (MacLeod et al., 2002), the modified dot probe task was used for the assessment and manipulation of attentional bias towards thin-ideal bodies.”
MethodShiasy, Y., Shakiba, S., Taremian, F., Hejazi, S. M. A., & Abasi, A. (2020) · Iranian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.18502/ijps.v15i2.2683 · Cited by 12
“Attention Bias Test (Dot-Probe Task) To assess attention bias, we used a modified form of the probe classification version of the dot-probe paradigm (MacLeod, Mathews, and Tata; 1986) (33), which was administered using Sina software.”
MethodAnxiety and the Encoding of Emotional Information
Mathews, A. (2006) · doi:10.1002/9780470756232.ch9 · Cited by 12
Online Attention Bias Modification for Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: A Randomized Controlled TrialPreprint
Habedank, I., Lennartz, S. J., Arslan, R. C., & Ertle, A. (2017) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/gxvwk · Cited by 12
Østergaard, T., Lundgren, T., Zettle, R., Jonassen, R., Harmer, C. J., Stiles, T. C., Landrø, N. I., & Haaland, V. Ø. (2018) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-018-2515-9 · Cited by 10
“[19], was originally developed to test the critical hypothesis that attention bias towards negative emotional information plays a causal role in depression and anxiety [19].”
Sensory processing sensitivity—For better or for worse? Theory, evidence, and societal implications
Greven, C. U., & Homberg, J. R. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-818251-2.00003-5 · Cited by 17
Ma, L., Kruijt, A., Ek, A.-K., Åbyhammar, G., Furmark, T., Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2020) · Internet Interventions · doi:10.1016/j.invent.2020.100334 · Cited by 10
“studies in the field have reported significant reduction in attentional bias and anxiety symptoms following ABM training (e.g. Amir et al., 2008; Dandeneau et al., 2007; MacLeod et al., 2002), more recent studies have failed to replicate these results (e.”
ResultStatistical Learning in an Emotional World
Plate, R. C., Woodard, K. A., & Pollak, S. D. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198855903.013.12 · Cited by 11
In‐Albon, T., & Schneider, S. (2012) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-012-9634-7 · Cited by 11
“According to cognitive theories, biases in information processing play an important role in the etiology and maintenance of anxiety disorders (e.g., Hadwin and Field 2010; Field 2006; MacLeod et al. 2002).”
MethodArmstrong, J. F., Wittrock, D. A., & Robinson, M. D. (2006) · Headache The Journal of Head and Face Pain · doi:10.1111/j.1526-4610.2006.00536.x · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- MacLeod, C., Rutherford, E., Campbell, L., Ebsworthy, G., & Holker, L.
- Affiliations
- The University of Western Australia (AU)
- ORCID
- MacLeod, Colin
- Venue
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology
- Published
- 2002-02
- Volume
- 111
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 107-123
- ISSN
- 0021-843X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1846
- OpenAlex
- W2122758649
- Cited by
- 1,334
- References
- 48
- Citations by year
- 2026: 13 · 2025: 31 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 35 · 2022: 44 · 2021: 80 · 2020: 54 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 65 · 2017: 61 · 2016: 80 · 2015: 96 · 2014: 84 · 2013: 96 · 2012: 83
- FWCI
- 32.64
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Abnormal Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Keywords
- attentional bias, emotional vulnerability, selective attention, negative emotions, dot-probe task, stress reactivity, causal mediation analysis, cognitive bias modification
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Psychology, Adolescent, Adult, Affect, Attention, Female, Humans, Male
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