Cited by 1,793Social and Intergroup PsychologyPsychometric Methodologies and TestingRacial and Ethnic Identity Research

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Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?

Fazio, Russell H., Jackson, Joni R., Dunton, Bridget C., Williams, Carol J.·1995·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013

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“Consistent with the reasoning that stereotypic information varies in accessibility among individuals differing in prejudice (cf. Augoustinos et al., 1994; Fazio et al., 1995; Lepore & Brown, 1997; Locke et al., 1994; Wittenbrink et al., 1997; see also Dovidio, Kawakami, C. Johnson, B. Johnson, & Howard, 1997), the rel…”
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Covert, J. J., & Dixon, T. L. (2008) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650207313166 · Cited by 55
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“With the use of the IAT and related measures (Fazio & Olson, 2003), researchers have found stronger associations between stereotypically African American names and negatively valenced words and stronger associations between stereotypically White names and positively valenced words (Greenwald et al., 1998; also Dovidio…”
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Nonverbal Behavior of Persuasive Sources: A Multiple Process Analysis
Guyer, J. J., Briñol, P., Petty, R. E., & Horcajo, J. (2019) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-018-00291-x · Cited by 47
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“However, when automatic or implicit attitudes are measured, the inverse is true (Devine, 1989; Fazio et al., 1995), with more than 80% of Whites showing significant evidence of anti-Black bias Address correspondence to Robert W.”
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RACE-BASED CONSIDERATIONS AND THE OBAMA VOTE
Ramakrishnan, S. K., Wong, J. S., Lee, T., et al. (2009) · Du Bois Review Social Science Research on Race · doi:10.1017/s1742058x09090079 · Cited by 44
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Martin, A. E., & Phillips, K. W. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2018.11.003 · Cited by 43
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“In particular, because stereotypes are well-learned associations between a target group and a set of attitudes, stereotyping is an automatic process, regardless of individuals’ actual level of prejudice (Conrey et al., 2005; Devine, 1989; Fazio et al., 1995; Macrae et al., 1995).”
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Intergroup anxiety effects on implicit racial evaluation and stereotyping.
Amodio, D. M., & Hamilton, H. (2012) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0029016 · Cited by 44
“behaviors in intergroup situations (e.g., Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995).”
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Gawronski, B., Deutsch, R., & Seidel, O. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167205274689 · Cited by 44
“The main goal of the present research was to investigate the underlying processes of how evaluative context stimuli influence implicit evaluations in the affective priming task (Fazio et al., 1986, 1995).”
Background
A Response Conflict Account of the Effects of Stereotypes on Racial Categorization
Bartholow, B. D., & Dickter, C. L. (2008) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2008.26.3.314 · Cited by 45
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“Conscious and unconscious racial attitudes (see, e.g., Craemer 2007, 2008; Fazio et al. 1995; Greenwald, McGhee, and Schwarz 1998; for a discussion, see Henkel, Dovidio, and Gaertner 2006) may infl uence either of these individual-level factors.”
Background
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Ostafin, B. D., & Brooks, J. J. (2010) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-010-9194-5 · Cited by 43
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“We assessed implicit attitudes with an evaluative priming measure (Fazio et al. 1995).”
Method
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“…of studies demonstrating the discriminate predictive validity of implicit and explicit measures of social attitudes (e.g., Blair, 2001; Dovidio et al., 2002; Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald and Banaji, 1995; Pelham et al., 2005; Rudman, 2004; Spalding and Hardin, 1999; Wittenbrink et al., 1997).”
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Background
The Accessibility of Motivational Tendencies Toward Alcohol: Approach, Avoidance, and Disinhibited Drinking.
Ostafin, B. D., Palfai, T. P., & Wechsler, C. E. (2003) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/1064-1297.11.4.294 · Cited by 43
“It is important that the accessibility of automatic evaluations predicts variance of behavior unique from self-report measures of motivation (Fazio et al., 1995).”
Background
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Social influences on spatial memory
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“As a result, many people attempt to distance themselves from accusations of racial bias, as is evidenced by the various methods developed to implicitly measure racial bias (e.g., Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998; Sigall & Page, 1971).”
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Mechanisms of Group Membership and Exemplar Exposure Effects on Implicit Attitudes
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“Of most direct relevance to the current research, African Americans have been shown to display implicit ingroup preference (Fazio et al., 1995; Olson et al., 2009), no evidence of bias (Jost, Banaji, & Nosek, 2004; Nosek et al., 2002), or weak levels of pro-White bias (Ashburn-Nardo, Knowles, &…”
Background
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Contextualized Attitude Change
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“Some examples include priming techniques (e.g., Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995 ), the Go/No-Go Association Task (Nosek & Banaji, 2001), and the Simple Association Test (Blanton et al., 2006).”
Method
The structure of prejudice: associative strength as a determinant of stereotype endorsement
Neumann, R., & Seibt, B. (2001) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.69 · Cited by 42
A Comparative Investigation of Seven Implicit Measures of Social CognitionPreprint
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“The procedure followed the one described by Fazio et al. (1995).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
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“(Fazio et al. 1995:566) To explore the possibility that the correlation between implicit and explicit motivational self-concepts might be moderated by self-presentation concerns, we pool our subjects into four superordinate groups—MPA students, MBA students, Mturk adults, and local government…”
Background
Unravelling the intellectual discourse of implicit consumer cognition: A bibliometric review
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Predicting private and public helping behaviour by implicit attitudes and the motivation to control prejudiced reactions
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Background
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Huang, Y., & Hutchinson, J. W. (2008) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/527340 · Cited by 41
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Grandfield, T., Thompson, A., & Turpin, G. (2005) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105305057316 · Cited by 40
“There are different methods of inhibiting stereotypes, which have varying effects on cognitive effort (von Hippel, Silver, & Lynch, 2000), for example if stereotypes are not activated at all (Fazio et al., 1995) this takes less cognitive effort than actively inhibiting or rejecting stereotypes (Devine, 1989) or reinte…”
BackgroundMethod
Up or Down? How Culture and Color Affect Judgments
Jiang, F., Lu, S., Yao, X., Yue, X., & Au, W. T. (2013) · Journal of Behavioral Decision Making · doi:10.1002/bdm.1800 · Cited by 39
Examining Children's Implicit Racial Attitudes Using Exemplar and Category-Based Measures.
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“Following a fixation of 350 ms, each image was individually presented in the middle of the screen with an inter-trial interval of 1,500 ms (Fazio et al., 1995).”
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Mixed stereotype content and attitudes toward students with special educational needs and their inclusion in regular schools in Luxembourg
Krischler, M., Cate, I. P.-T., & Krolak‐Schwerdt, S. (2018) · Research in Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2018.02.007 · Cited by 40
Nonconscious Feelings of Closeness toward African Americans and Support for Pro‐Black Policies
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Effects of Racism on Perceptions and Punishment of Intra- and Interracial Crimes
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Automatic evaluation isn't that crude! Moderation of masked affective priming by type of valence
Wentura, D., & Degner, J. (2009) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930902854587 · Cited by 40
Measurement of Attitudes
Rubenking, B. E., & Appelbaum, M. (2017) · The International Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods · doi:10.1002/9781118901731.iecrm0141 · Cited by 37
Math = Male, Me = Female, therefore Math = MePreprint
Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2016) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/y2g6s · Cited by 40
Factors that contribute to the maintenance or decline of relationship satisfaction
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What Mistakes Disclose: A Process Dissociation Approach to Automatic and Controlled Processes in Social Psychology
Payne, B. K. (2008) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00091.x · Cited by 39
“In an implicit test such as affective priming, subjects see a picture or word flashed briefly as a prime, followed by a pleasant or unpleasant word and they must classify the word as good or bad (Fazio et al., 1995).”
Background
Racial Democracy in the Americas
Peña, Y., Sidanius, J., & Sawyer, M. Q. (2004) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022104270118 · Cited by 39
“1980; Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, W see also Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997;”
The Social Unconscious
Banaji, M. R., Lemm, K. M., & Carpenter, S. J. (2001) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470998519.ch7 · Cited by 43
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Counter‐prejudicial training reduces activation of biased associations and enhances response monitoring
Calanchini, J., Gonsalkorale, K., Sherman, J. W., & Klauer, K. C. (2013) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.1941 · Cited by 38
Explicit Control of Implicit Responses
Wallaert, M., Ward, A. C., & Mann, T. L. (2010) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000022 · Cited by 37
Prevention of Intention Invention in the Affect Misattribution Procedure
Gawronski, B., & Ye, Y. (2015) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550614543029 · Cited by 32
On the role of conflict and control in social cognition: Event-related brain potential investigations
Bartholow, B. D. (2010) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00955.x · Cited by 37
“Research using more indirect methods (e.g., so-called implicit measures) continues to show that minority racial group categories generally are associated with more negative than positive evaluations (e.g., Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Greenwald, Oakes, & Hoffman, 2003; Payne, 2001).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Varieties of Social Cognition
Uhlmann, E. L., Pizarro, D. A., & Bloom, P. A. (2008) · Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5914.2008.00372.x · Cited by 40
Immersion Versus Transcendence
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How do People Evaluate Objects? A Brief Review
Houwer, J. D. (2009) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00162.x · Cited by 40
Intergroup Bias and Inequity: Legitimizing Beliefs and Policy Attitudes
Glaser, J. (2005) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1007/s11211-005-6825-1 · Cited by 38
“First, a long tradition of research indicates that humans make group-based categorizations involuntarily and ubiquitously (e.g., Bruner, 1957; Fazio et al., 1995; Gaertner and McLaughlin, 1983; Tajfel, 1978).”
Background
The Relationship Between Racial Identity Development and Multicultural Counseling Competency: A Second Look
Vinson, T. S., & Neimeyer, G. J. (2003) · Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development · doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.2003.tb00354.x · Cited by 38
Self-Esteem Depends on the Beholder: Effects of a Subtle Social Value Cue
Weisbuch, M., Sinclair, S., Skorinko, J. L. M., & Eccleston, C. P. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.07.021 · Cited by 41
“In addition to being less subject to strategic manipulation than self-report measures (e.g., Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995 ), implicit measures have been shown to be valid (Fazio & Olson, 2003; Poehlman, Uhlmann, Greenwald, & Banaji, 2007) and sensitive to fluctuations in the social context (for a review, s…”
On the predictive validity of implicit attitude measures: The moderating effect of perceived group variability
Lambert, A. J., Payne, B. K., Ramsey, S., & Shaffer, L. M. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2004.06.006 · Cited by 37
“In all but one study, this variable was operationalized via Dunton and Fazio s Motivation to Control Prejudicial Reactions (MCPR) scale (Dunton & Fazio, 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; Olson & Fazio, 2004; Payne, 2001; Towles-Schwen & Fazio, 2003).”
BackgroundMethod
Implicit Social Cognition
Hahn, A., & Gawronski, B. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.24066-x · Cited by 43
“…evaluative target decisions, a person with negative associations toward Black people should be faster in responding to negative words and slower in responding to positive words when the target words are preceded by Black faces compared to neutral baseline primes (e.g., Fazio et al., 1995).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Questioning Psychological Constructs: Current Issues and Proposed Changes
de Boeck, P. A. L., Pek, J. C. X., Walton, K. M., Wegener, D. T., Turner, B. M., Andersen, B. L., Beauchaine, T. P., Lecavalier, L., Myung, J. I., & Petty, R. E. (2023) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2023.2274429 · Cited by 45
“…1943) to the more contemporary Implicit Association Test (in which consistency of evaluative associations between two categories of stimuli speed up responses in a categorization task) (Greenwald et al., 1998); see Fazio et al. (1995) for a conceptually similar evaluative priming measure.”
Do negative implicit associations indicate negative attitudes? Social explanations moderate whether ostensible “negative” associations are prejudice-based or empathy-based
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Hegemonic and Polemical Beliefs: Culture and Consumption in the Social Representation of Wine
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Abacioglu, C. S., Zee, M., Hanna, F., Soeterik, I. M., Fischer, A. H., & Volman, M. L. L. (2019) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2019.102887 · Cited by 45
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Buttrick, N. R., Axt, J. R., Ebersole, C. R., & Huband, J. M. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2019.103941 · Cited by 34
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Kurdi, B., & Dunham, Y. C. (2020) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2020.38.supp.s42 · Cited by 35
Stereotypes and teacher characteristics as an explanation for the class-specific disciplinary practices of pre-service teachers
Dunkake, I., & Schuchart, C. (2015) · Teaching and Teacher Education · doi:10.1016/j.tate.2015.04.005 · Cited by 35
Don't ignore the other half: the impact of ingroup identification on implicit measures of prejudice
Sassenberg, K., & Wieber, F. (2005) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.267 · Cited by 37
“Fazio et al. (1995) , for example, used African American and Caucasian faces as primes and positive as well as negative adjectives as targets.”
BackgroundInfluential
Implicit attitudes: meaning, measurement, and synergy with political science
Pérez, E. O. (2013) · Politics Groups and Identities · doi:10.1080/21565503.2013.785958 · Cited by 37
“And, as I have already noted, implicit attitudes predict personal judgments and behavior (e.g. Fazio et al. 1995; Payne et al. 2009; Greenwald et al. 2009), which suggests they contain a high degree of evaluative knowledge.”
BackgroundInfluential
The contribution of implicit cognition to the Theory of Reasoned Action Model: a study of food preferences
Ackermann, C.-L., & Palmer, A. J. (2014) · Journal of Marketing Management · doi:10.1080/0267257x.2013.877956 · Cited by 37
Double-Dipping Effect? How Combining YouTube Environmental PSAs With Thematically Congruent Advertisements in Different Formats Affects Memory and Attitudes
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“…on a related topic easier and leads to better cognitive and persuasive outcomes (Dahl en 2005; Dahl en et al. 2008; Ellen, Mohr, and Webb 2000; Fazio et al. 1995, 2003; Gunter et al. 2002; Moore, Stammerjohan, and Coulter 2005; Moorman, Neijens, and Smit 2002; Sanbonmatsu and Fazio 1991;…”
Background

Authors: Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J.
ORCID: Fazio, Russell H.
Williams, Carol J.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1995-12
Volume: 69
Issue: 6
Pages: 1013-1027
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013
OpenAlex: W4240262739
Cited by: 1,793
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 12 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 56 · 2023: 55 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 80 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 86 · 2016: 76 · 2015: 84 · 2014: 83 · 2013: 70 · 2012: 80
FWCI: 42.74
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Keywords: automatic activation, racial attitudes, implicit attitudes, unobtrusive measurement, measurement reliability, Implicit Association Test

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Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?

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