Cited by 1,793Social and Intergroup PsychologyPsychometric Methodologies and TestingRacial and Ethnic Identity Research

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Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?

Fazio, Russell H., Jackson, Joni R., Dunton, Bridget C., Williams, Carol J.·1995·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013

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Background
Just say no! (and mean it): Meaningful negation as a tool to modify automatic racial attitudes
Johnson, I. R., Kopp, B., & Petty, R. E. (2016) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430216647189 · Cited by 78
“, Gawronski et al., 2008; Kawakami et al., 2000) required participants to negate both Black faces paired with negative traits and White faces paired with positive traits. This, of course, is done because racial prejudice can potentially stem from a “Black–bad” and a “White–good” mentality, and targeting both associati…”
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“see Dovidio, Kawakami, Johnson, Johnson, & Howard, 1997, studies 1 and 3; Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995, study 1; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998, study 3). However, contrary to the dissociation model, several other investigators have provided evidence of a positive relationship between the two (Dovidio…”
Result
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“Nevertheless, because group categorizations precipitate stereotypes (e.g., Devine, 1989), prejudice (e.g., Fazio et al., 1995), and discrimination (e.g., Dovidio et al., 1997), relying on these categorizations is a “double-edged sword.””
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The Struggle for the Nature of “Prejudice”: “Prejudice” Expression as Identity Performance
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“Early research treated automatic associations as ‘bona fide’ pipeline to “genuine prejudice”, free of social influence (Fazio et al., 1995).”
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Automatic affective priming of recently acquired stimulus valence: Priming at SOA 300 but not at SOA 1000
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“Comparison of implicit measurements Two implicit measures of “attitude”—the IAT (Greenwald et al., 1998) and the Priming Task (Fazio et al., 1995)—have so far been widely employed (Fazio & Olson, 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Modeling stimulus variation in three common implicit attitude tasks
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“In this article, we consider three commonly used implicit evaluation measures in detail: the IAT (Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998), the AMP (Payne, Cheng, Govorun, & Stewart, 2005), and the EPT (Fazio et al., 1995) We used data from a large national dataset involving the responses of many participants to these thr…”
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“…procedures of the RIT and the AMP, the target stimuli in the RIT remained on the screen until participants pressed one of the two response keys (see Fazio et al., 1995); the target stimuli in the AMP were replaced with a blackand-white pattern mask after 100 ms, which remained on the screen until…”
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Evaluative vs. trait representation in intergroup social judgments: Distinct roles of anterior temporal lobe and prefrontal cortex
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“, associations with the concepts of ‘‘good’’ or ‘‘bad’’) or stereotype content (Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald et al., 1998), but they are less well suited for the measurement of affective processes (Amodio et al.”
BackgroundInfluential
After-affects: How automatic evaluations influence the interpretation of subsequent, unrelated stimuli
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“…not alter explicit attitudes may reflect the susceptibility of explicit attitudes to self-presentation and other sources of influence (Banaji, 2001; Fazio et al., 1995); that said, caution is warranted in interpreting these null effects given that the explicit measure is based on only three…”
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Social power increases implicit prejudice
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“computerized task in which they categorized words according to valence (Fazio et al., 1995).”
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Psychological Perspectives on Hate Crime Laws.
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“Fazio and Dunton (1997) further elaborated this multidimensional perspective by demonstrating that the relationship between implicit and explicit measures of prejudice is moderated by one's motivational state.”
Background
Concerns about appearing prejudiced: Implications for anxiety during daily interracial interactions
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“Although some previous research on perceptions of skin tone has suggested that Black and White participants may respond in similar ways (Maddox & Gray, 2002), other research on race differences in stereotype activation (Fazio et al., 1995) has implied that explorations that employ a more diverse sample may reveal inte…”
Result
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“In addition, we included an evaluative priming task (Fazio et al., 1995) to obtain an unobtrusive measure of evaluation.”
Method
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“Most of this research has emphasized how people who eschew explicit prejudice and consciously strive to act in a nonoppressive manner can still perpetrate subtle forms of “modern” bias that operate without intention or awareness (e.g., Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; Greenwald McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998; Henke…”
Background
A Meta-Analysis on the Malleability of Automatic Gender Stereotypes
Lenton, A. P., Bruder, M., & Sedikides, C. (2009) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2009.01488.x · Cited by 72
“The most commonly used measures were the IAT, the GNAT, sequential priming tasks ( Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995 ), and LDTs (Macrae et al., 1994).”
Method
Complicating Race: The Relationship between Prejudice, Race, and Social Class Categorizations
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“Priming studies using facial stimuli have been used to demonstrate the automatic activation of attitudes (e.g., Dovidio, Kawakami, Johnson, Johnson, & Howard, 1997; Fazio et al., 1995) and stereotypes (e.g., Stewart, Weeks, & Lupfer, 2003; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997).”
Xenophobic attitudes in German police officers
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“Whereas explicit attitudes have been shown to predict deliberative and controlled behaviors, implicit attitudes have been shown to predict spontaneous behaviors that are hard to monitor or difficult to control (Dovidio et al., 1997, 2002; Fazio, 1986; Fazio and Olson, 2003; Fazio et al., 1995; LaPiere, 1934).”
Background
Can Television Change Anti‐Fat Attitudes and Behavior?1
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You don’t have to be well-educated to be an aversive racist, but it helps
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Who's in Charge? Effects of Situational Roles on Automatic Gender Bias
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“Prejudicial attitudes and stereotypical associations undoubtedly are systemic forces that are often activated and applied automatically, without the conscious awareness of the perpetrator (Banaji & Hardin, 1996; Bargh et al., 1992; Bargh, Chen, & Burrows, 1996; Devine, 1989; Dovidio, Kawakami, Johnson, Johnson, & Howa…”
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Assessing Anti-White Attitudes and Predicting Perceived Racism: The Johnson-Lecci Scale
Johnson, J. D., & Lecci, L. B. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202250041 · Cited by 70
“We here focus on BlackWhite relations because the literature on intergroup processes has tended to emphasize interactions between these two racial groups (e.g., Devine, 1989; Fazio et al., 1995; Lepore & Brown, 1997; McConahay, 1986).1”
Background
Voter Affect and the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election: Hope and Race Mattered
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But I'm No Bigot: How Prejudiced White Americans Maintain Unprejudiced Self‐Images
O’Brien, L. T., Crandall, C. S., Reser, A. H., Warner, R. H., Alsbrooks, A., & Blodorn, A. (2010) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00604.x · Cited by 70
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Knowing how to react: Automatic response priming from social categories.
Jonas, K. J., & Sassenberg, K. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.5.709 · Cited by 66
Implicit attitudes towards smoking predict long-term relapse in abstinent smokers
Spruyt, A., Lemaigre, V., Salhi, B., Gucht, D. V., Tibboel, H., Bockstaele, B. V., Houwer, J. D., van Meerbeeck, J. P., & Nackaerts, K. (2015) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-015-3893-2 · Cited by 67
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Do Unto Others as Others Have Done Unto You?
Craig, M. A., DeHart, T., Richeson, J. A., & Fiedorowicz, L. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167212445210 · Cited by 71
Preservice teachers’ implicit attitudes toward racial minority students: Evidence from three implicit measures
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A public versus private administration of the implicit association test
Boysen, G. A., Vogel, D. L., & Madon, S. (2006) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.318 · Cited by 66
“If that were true, implicit measures would have a major advantage over explicit measures ( Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995 ).”
Background
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Hart, W., Ottati, V., & Krumdick, N. D. (2011) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00812.x · Cited by 68
“When this is the case, they typically correct for the perceived influence of a stereotype by adjusting their judgment in a direction opposite to assimilation (Fazio et al., 1995; Wegener & Petty, 1997).”
Background
The Persuasiveness of Racial Arguments as a Subtle Measure of Racism
Saucier, D. A., & Miller, C. T. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203254612 · Cited by 65
“In contrast, self-report measures of prejudice did predict these controlled behaviors (Devine, 1989; Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995).”
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Bad boys, good girls? Implicit and explicit attitudes toward ethnic minority students among elementary and secondary school teachers
Glock, S., & Klapproth, F. (2017) · Studies In Educational Evaluation · doi:10.1016/j.stueduc.2017.04.002 · Cited by 73
Standing up and speaking out against prejudice toward gay men in the workplace
Martinez, L. R., Hebl, M. R., Smith, N. A., & Sabat, I. E. (2017) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2017.08.001 · Cited by 65
Self-Anchoring in Conversation: Why Language Users Do Not Do What They “Should”
Keysar, B., & Barr, D. J. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.010 · Cited by 67
Durability Bias in Affective Forecasting
Gilbert, D. T., Pinel, E. C., Wilson, T. D., Blumberg, S. J., & Wheatley, T. P. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.018 · Cited by 66
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Anomalies in implicit attitudes research
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“…what he called the “bona fide pipeline” to attitudes, which was based on the then recent research on priming in cognitive psychology, opened the road for the contemporary research on indirect measures of attitudes (Fazio et al., 1995), and its influence is evidenced by its more than 3000 citations.”
Background
Concerns about appearing prejudiced get under the skin: Stress responses to interracial contact in the moment and across time
Trawalter, S., Adam, E. K., Chase-Lansdale, P. L., & Richeson, J. A. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2011.12.003 · Cited by 65
“These behavioral findings suggest that intergroup anxiety can “leak” into behavior, consistent with previous work (e.g., Dovidio et al., 1997; 2002; Fazio et al. 1995; McConnell & Leibold, 2001; Trawalter & Richeson, 2008).”
Result
On the (un-)controllability of affective priming: Strategic manipulation is feasible but can possibly be prevented
Degner, J. (2008) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930801993924 · Cited by 65
“The most straightforward way of preventing participants from intentional faking is to avoid them having any faking intentions, either by using a clever cover story that draws attention away of the true purpose of the study (e.g., Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995 ) or by preventing conscious processing of the p…”
Background
Established liked versus disliked brands: Brain activity, implicit associations and explicit responses
Bosshard, S., Bourke, J. D., Kunaharan, S., Koller, M., & Walla, P. (2016) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2016.1176691 · Cited by 65
“The IAT has been used primarily as a tool within social psychology to determine implicit attitudes and stereotypes of social constructs including race (ecomorphological group) and gender (Banaji & Greenwald, 1995; Banaji & Hardin, 1996; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Greenwald, et al., 2002; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Dovi…”
Method
The Cognitive Effects of Experiencing and Observing Subtle Racial Discrimination
Ozier, E. M., Taylor, V. J., & Murphy, M. C. (2019) · Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1111/josi.12349 · Cited by 74
The Structure of Bias
Johnson, G. M. (2020) · Mind · doi:10.1093/mind/fzaa011 · Cited by 76
Preconscious control of stereotype activation through chronic egalitarian goals.
Moskowitz, G. B., Gollwitzer, P. M., Wasel, W., & Schaal, B. (1999) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.167 · Cited by 500
Political Context and the Survey Response: The Dynamics of Racial Policy Opinion
Berinsky, A. J. (2002) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1111/1468-2508.00140 · Cited by 64
On the predictive validity of indirect attitude measures: Prediction of consumer choice behavior on the basis of affective priming in the picture–picture naming task
Spruyt, A., Hermans, D., Houwer, J. D., Vandekerckhove, J., & Eelen, P. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.06.009 · Cited by 64
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“According to this theory, priming stimuli activate semantically related concepts as they increase the sensitivity to the stimuli displayed a posteriori by making the associated concepts more accessible (facilitation) [36].”
Background
Implicit racial bias and prosocial behavior
Štěpáníková, I., Triplett, J., & Simpson, B. (2011) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2011.02.004 · Cited by 65
“The behavioral evidence that does exist mostly pertains to spontaneous behaviors that are difficult to control, such as subtle non-verbal expressions of hostility in interracial interaction (Chen and Bargh, 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; Dovidio et al., 1997a,b, 2002).”
BackgroundResult
In the Privacy of Their Own Homes: Using the Internet to Assess Racial Bias
Evans, D. C., Garcia, D. J., Garcia, D. M., & Baron, R. S. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202239052 · Cited by 65
“Our working assumption has been that the presence of the experimenter is the key factor producing differences in racial bias across settings, as has been shown both in research on Internet assessment (Richman et al., 1999) and on racial attitudes ( Fazio et al., 1995; McConahay et al., 1981).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
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“Previous strategies for dealing with this problem have included subtle measures of racial attitudes (Henry and Sears 2002; Kinder and Sanders 1996; McConahay and Hough 1976), as well as implicit techniques (e.g., Fazio et al. 1995; Greenwald, McGhee, and Schwartz 1998).”
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“2 This characteristic is highly valued in social cognition research because this paradigm can thus be used to unobtrusively assess the valence of attitude objects (Fazio et al., 1995).”
Background
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“Research using implicit measures reveals that most White Americans have negative automatic associations with African Americans (e.g., Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald et al., 1998; Nosek et al., 2002).”
BackgroundInfluential
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“One important set of evidence supporting this claim comes from studies of unwilling racists who are able to overcome their automatic biases when motivated to do so (Devine 1989; Fiske 1989; Fazio et al. 1995; Dunton and Fazio 1997; Kawakami et al. 2000; Blair et al. 2001; Olson and Fazio 2004).”
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“For instance, personal associations could be defined as the associations that are assessed with particular measurement procedures, such as the personalized variant of the IAT (Olson & Fazio, 2004) or affective priming (Fazio et al., 1995).”
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“Please cite this article in press as: Smith, P. K. et al., Subliminal exposure to faces and racial attitudes: Exposure to ..., Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (2007), doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.01.006 measures of prejudice involve comparisons between attitudes toward Whites and attitudes toward Blacks (e.g., Fa…”
BackgroundMethodInfluential

Authors: Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J.
ORCID: Fazio, Russell H.
Williams, Carol J.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1995-12
Volume: 69
Issue: 6
Pages: 1013-1027
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013
OpenAlex: W4240262739
Cited by: 1,793
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 12 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 56 · 2023: 55 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 80 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 86 · 2016: 76 · 2015: 84 · 2014: 83 · 2013: 70 · 2012: 80
FWCI: 42.74
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Keywords: automatic activation, racial attitudes, implicit attitudes, unobtrusive measurement, measurement reliability, Implicit Association Test

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Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?

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