Cited by 1,793Social and Intergroup PsychologyPsychometric Methodologies and TestingRacial and Ethnic Identity Research

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Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?

Fazio, Russell H., Jackson, Joni R., Dunton, Bridget C., Williams, Carol J.·1995·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013

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Background
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“, response time, memory, and person perception) as outcome measures (Bargh, 1999; Fazio et al., 1995; Fiske & Taylor, 1991).”
Background
Discrimination and the Implicit Association Test
Rudman, L. A., & Ashmore, R. D. (2007) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430207078696 · Cited by 139
“Although some implicit measures appear to be better at predicting automatic versus controlled behavior (Dovidio et al., 2002), in other cases the behaviors have been a mix of automatic and controlled actions (Fazio et al., 1995; McConnell & Leibold, 2001).”
Result
Stereotypic explanatory bias: Implicit stereotyping as a predictor of discrimination
Sekaquaptewa, D., Espinoza, P. P., Thompson, M., Vargas, P. T., & von Hippel, W. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(02)00512-7 · Cited by 143
“participants report racial attitudes first, whereas responding on the IAT seems largely uncontrollable (Kim & Greenwald, 1998), the SEB was given first, followed by the IAT, and the MRS was given last, as it is apparent to participants that it measures racial prejudice ( Fazio et al., 1995 ).”
BackgroundInfluential
Editorial: Attitudes can be Measured! But What is an Attitude?
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“For instance, some researchers argued that the two measurement techniques represent different approaches to assessing the same underlying attitude, differing only in the extent to which they allow participants to control their responses (e.g., Fazio et al., 1995).”
Background
Compelled to consume: The Implicit Association Test and automatic alcohol motivation.
Ostafin, B. D., & Palfai, T. P. (2006) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/0893-164x.20.3.322 · Cited by 143
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“Attitudes: Ingroup Preferences and Related Behaviors and Beliefs Among Gay and Straight Men”
Background
On the Investigation of Primed and Chronic Autonomous and Heteronomous Motivational Orientations
Levesque, C. S., & Pelletier, L. G. (2003) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203256877 · Cited by 142
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Ronquillo, J., Denson, T. F., Lickel, B. A., Lu, Z., Nandy, A. S., & Maddox, K. B. (2007) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsl043 · Cited by 145
“However, an abundance of research also suggests that implicit racial bias persists (Bargh and Chen, 1997; Devine, 1989; Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald et al., 1998).”
Background
Assessment of multiple implicit self‐concept dimensions using the Extrinsic Affective Simon Task (EAST)
Teige, S., Schnabel, K., Banse, R., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2004) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.531 · Cited by 142
What Does the Implicit Association Test Measure? A Test of the Convergent and Discriminant Validity of Prejudice-Related IATs
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Though They May Be Unaware, Newlyweds Implicitly Know Whether Their Marriage Will Be Satisfying
McNulty, J. K., Olson, M. A., Meltzer, A. L., & Shaffer, M. J. (2013) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.1243140 · Cited by 137
Counteractive evaluation: Asymmetric shifts in the implicit value of conflicting motivations
Fishbach, A., Zhang, Y., & Trope, Y. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.09.008 · Cited by 142
“Because the latency of incorrect responses would be difficult to interpret, we used only correct responses in all subsequent analyses (see Bargh et al., 1992; Fazio, 1990; Fazio et al., 1995).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
From automatic antigay prejudice to behavior: The moderating role of conscious beliefs about gender and behavioral control.
Dasgupta, N., & Rivera, L. M. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.2.268 · Cited by 137
“These have been successfully used in past research as indicators of positive and negative nonverbal behavior toward others (DePaulo & Friedman, 1998; Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; LaFrance, 1985; McConnell & Leibold, 2001).”
Method
Disruptive Effects of Vigilance on Dominant Group Members' Treatment of Outgroup Members: Choking Versus Shining Under Pressure.
Vorauer, J. D., & Turpie, C. A. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.384 · Cited by 137
When Social Context Matters: The Influence of Long–Term Contact and Short–Term Exposure to Admired Outgroup Members on Implicit Attitudes and Behavioral Intentions
Dasgupta, N., & Rivera, L. M. (2008) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2008.26.1.112 · Cited by 147
“But the same type of outgroup exposure changes explicit behavioral intentions by increasing people’s motivation to be egalitarian and by encouraging them to engage controlled processes before deciding on a course of action (Dasgupta & Rivera, 2006; Fazio et al., 1995; Plant & Devine, 1998).”
Racism and racial categorization.
Blascovich, J., Wyer, N. A., Swart, L. A., et al. (1997) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.72.6.1364 · Cited by 138
The Activation of Aging Stereotypes in Younger and Older Adults
Chasteen, A. L., Schwarz, N., & Park, D. C. (2002) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/57.6.p540 · Cited by 137
Intergroup Relations
Yzerbyt, V., & Demoulin, S. (2010) · Handbook of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002028 · Cited by 133
Understanding and Using the Brief Implicit Association Test: Recommended Scoring Procedures
Nosek, B. A., Bar-Anan, Y., Sriram, N., Axt, J., & Greenwald, A. G. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0110938 · Cited by 179
“Other implicit measures In addition to Brief IATs measuring the three topics of interest, participants were randomly assigned to complete one or more of seven other implicit measures about the same topics – the IAT, Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT) [27], single-target (ST-IAT) [28], Sorting Paired Features [29], Evalu…”
Method
Combining Explicit and Implicit Measures of Racial Discrimination in Health Research
Krieger, N., Carney, D. R., Lancaster, K., Waterman, P. D., Кошелева, А., & Banaji, M. R. (2009) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2009.159517 · Cited by 135
Implicit measures of teachers' attitudes and stereotypes, and their effects on teacher practice and student outcomes: A review
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Fundamental Processes Leading to Attitude Change: Implications for Cancer Prevention Communications
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Differences in Physicians’ Verbal and Nonverbal Communication With Black and White Patients at the End of Life
Elliott, A. M., Alexander, S. C., Mescher, C., Mohan, D., & Barnato, A. E. (2015) · Journal of Pain and Symptom Management · doi:10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2015.07.008 · Cited by 128
The neural correlates of implicit and explicit self-relevant processing
Rameson, L. T., Satpute, A. B., & Lieberman, M. D. (2010) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.12.098 · Cited by 130
“Some researchers have argued that implicit measures tap into ‘true’ beliefs or attitudes, while explicit measures include contaminates such as social desirability and self-presentation (Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald et al., 1998).”
Background
The Obama effect: Decreasing implicit prejudice and stereotyping
Plant, E. A., Devine, P. G., Cox, W. T. L., Columb, C. J., Miller, S. L., Goplen, J. L., & Peruche, B. M. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.04.018 · Cited by 133
Are We Puppets on a String? Comparing the Impact of Contingency and Validity on Implicit and Explicit Evaluations
Peters, K. R., & Gawronski, B. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211400423 · Cited by 132
“According to Fazio et al. (1995), the affect elicited by the prime should facilitate evaluative decisions for valence-congruent target words but inhibit evaluative decisions for valence-incongruent target words, so that response latencies to the target words can be used to infer implicit…”
Background
The Mismeasure of the Self
Tanesini, A. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198858836.001.0001 · Cited by 143
Gender Differences in Attitudes Toward Gay Men and Lesbians: The Role of Motivation to Respond Without Prejudice
Ratcliff, J. J., Lassiter, G. D., Markman, K. D., & Snyder, C. J. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206290213 · Cited by 133
“Of importance, internal and external motivation also can exert a moderating influence on implicit race bias (e.g., Devine et al., 2002; Fazio et al., 1995; Maddux, Barden, Brewer, & Petty, 2005).”
Background
The role of perceived negativity in the moderation of African Americans' implicit and explicit racial attitudes
Livingston, R. W. (2002) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(02)00002-1 · Cited by 134
Explicit and Implicit Trust Within Safety Culture
Burns, C., Mearns, K. J., & McGeorge, P. (2006) · Risk Analysis · doi:10.1111/j.1539-6924.2006.00821.x · Cited by 132
“Recognition scores were calculated as per the method used by Fazio et al. (1995).”
Influential
Let’s talk about race, Baby! When Whites’ and Blacks’ interracial contact experiences diverge
Trawalter, S., & Richeson, J. A. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.03.013 · Cited by 133
How to find what's in a name: Scrutinizing the optimality of five scoring algorithms for the name‐letter task
LeBel, E. P., & Gawronski, B. (2009) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.705 · Cited by 131
Implicit and Explicit Consequences of Exposure to Violent and Misogynous Rap Music
Rudman, L. A., & Lee, M. R. (2002) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430202005002541 · Cited by 135
“These behaviors include spontaneous reactions to outgroup members (Dovidio et al., 1997; Fazio et al., 1995; McConnell & Leibold, 2001), as well as judgments that require subjective interpretation, such as attributions for racial unrest (Fazio et al., 1995) and ratings of Black target essays (…”
BackgroundResultInfluential
When the method makes a difference: Antagonistic effects on “automatic evaluations” as a function of task characteristics of the measure
Deutsch, R., & Gawronski, B. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.09.001 · Cited by 130
“In the present studies, such effects were reflected in antagonistic effects of the same experimental manipulation on two functionally equivalent affective priming tasks that are based on distinct mechanisms (Fazio et al., 1995; Payne et al., 2005).”
BackgroundMethodResult
Network News and Racial Beliefs: Exploring the Connection Between National Television News Exposure and Stereotypical Perceptions of African Americans
Dixon, T. L. (2008) · Journal of Communication · doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2008.00387.x · Cited by 129
“Although some have argued that the measure can be reactive under certain circumstances and that it is really measuring political ideology rather than racism ( Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995 ), research has also shown the MRS to be correlated with more traditional racial attitudes (McConahay, 1986).”
Result
Stereotypes, stereotype threat and ageing: implications for the understanding and treatment of people with Alzheimer's disease
SCHOLL, J. M., & Sabat, S. R. (2008) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x07006241 · Cited by 140
“Not only are many people unaware of age stereotypes in the culture, many are unaware of the stereotypes that they themselves hold (Devine 1989; Fazio et al. 1995; Nosek, Banaji and Greenwald 2002a).”
Background
Prejudice and Stereotype Maintenance Processes: Attention, Attribution, and Individuation.
Sherman, J. W., Stroessner, S. J., Conrey, F. R., & Azam, O. A. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.607 · Cited by 128
“However, because prejudice based on race is more sensitive to self-presentational concerns than is prejudice based on sexual orientation, explicit measures (i.e., racism scales) may be less valid measures of attitudes about race than sexual orientation (e.g., Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995 ).”
Background
Implicit Attitudes and Discrimination Against People with Physical Disabilities
Dovidio, J. F., Pagotto, L., & Hebl, M. R. (2011) · Disability and Aging Discrimination · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-6293-5_9 · Cited by 133
“For instance, Fazio et al. (1995) showed that direct ratings related to the legitimacy of the Rodney King verdict and the illegitimacy of the anger of the Black community were correlated mainly with explicit measures of prejudice such as self-reported attitudes and not with implicit measures…”
Influential
Relations Between Implicit and Explicit Measures of Attitudes and Measures of Behavior: Evidence of Moderation by Individual Difference Variables
Conner, M. T., Perugini, M., O'Gorman, R., Ayres, K., & Prestwich, A. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167207309194 · Cited by 129
“This double dissociation pattern of effects has been confirmed in several studies (e.g., Dovidio, Kawakami, & Gaertner, 2002; Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; Perugini, 2005, Study 2), but not in all studies (e.g., Karpinski & Hilton, 2001).”
Result
Evaluative versus Conceptual Judgments in Automatic Stereotyping and Prejudice
Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (2001) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.2000.1456 · Cited by 129
‘They're not racist …’ Prejudice denial, mitigation and suppression in dialogue
Condor, S., Figgou, L., Abell, J., Gibson, S., & Stevenson, C. (2006) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466605x66817 · Cited by 128
“Brendl, Markman, & Messner, 2001; Dovidio, Brigham, Johnson, & Gaertner, 1996; Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; Gaertner & Dovidio, 1986; Saucier, Miller & Doucet, 2005; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997; see Dovidio & Fazio, 1992; Maass, Castelli, & Arcuri, 2000).”
Effect of Social Category Priming on Personal Attitudes
Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J. F., & Dijksterhuis, A. (2003) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.14451 · Cited by 130
When a Robot’s Group Membership Matters
Kuchenbrandt, D., Eyssel, F., Bobinger, S., & Neufeld, M. (2013) · International Journal of Social Robotics · doi:10.1007/s12369-013-0197-8 · Cited by 134
“Implicit measures, in contrast, often encompass reaction time paradigms [31, 32].”
Background
Reconsidering the accuracy of follower leadership ratings
Hansbrough, T. K., Lord, R. G., & Schyns, B. (2014) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.11.006 · Cited by 143
Drinking without thinking: An implicit measure of alcohol motivation predicts failure to control alcohol use
Ostafin, B. D., Marlatt, G. A., & Greenwald, A. G. (2008) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2008.08.003 · Cited by 128
“Initial research indicates that automatic attitudes are more likely to influence behavior that is difficult to control (e.g., nonverbal behavior; Fazio et al., 1995; Perugini, 2005).”
Background
Automatic attitudes and alcohol: Does implicit liking predict drinking?
Payne, B. K., Govorun, O., & Arbuckle, N. L. (2008) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930701357394 · Cited by 128
“Such motivations can mask the relationship between implicit and explicit measures (Fazio et al., 1995; Hofmann, Gschwendner, & Schmitt, 2005; Payne, 2001; Payne, Cheng, Govorun, & Stewart, 2005).”
Background
Multiple categorization in resume screening: Examining effects on hiring discrimination against Arab applicants in field and lab settings
Derous, E., Ryan, A. M., & Nguyen, H.-H. D. (2011) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.769 · Cited by 129
Saving Face: Identifying Voter Responses to Black Candidates and Female Candidates
Krupnikov, Y., Piston, S., & Bauer, N. M. (2015) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12261 · Cited by 128
Race and Crime in the News: Whites' Identification and Misidentification of Violent and Nonviolent Criminal Suspects
Oliver, M. B., & Fonash, D. (2002) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1207/s1532785xmep0402_02 · Cited by 128
“…of racial information presented in the news reflects stereotype activation as suggested here, future research in this area would clearly benefit from more direct assessments of activation using procedures such as response latency techniques (e.g., Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995).”
BackgroundMethod
Reporting Tendencies Underlie Discrepancies Between Implicit and Explicit Measures of Self-Esteem
Olson, M. A., Fázio, R. H., & Hermann, A. D. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01890.x · Cited by 129
Self-citation
Narcissistic Fragility: Rethinking Its Links to Explicit and Implicit Self-esteem
Gregg, A. P., & Sedikides, C. (2009) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860902815451 · Cited by 127
“In particular, indirect measures elicit responses under conditions designed to undermine one or more facets of explicit mental processing, such as intentional control (Draine & Greenwald, 1998 ) or measurement awareness (Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995 ).”
Background
Reliability of Implicit Self–Esteem Measures Revisited
Krause, S., Back, M., Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. (2011) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.792 · Cited by 117
Anarchy of effects? Exploring attention to online advertising and multiple outcomes
Goodrich, K. (2011) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20371 · Cited by 134
What do implicit measures measure?
Brownstein, M., Madva, A., & Gawronski, B. (2019) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1501 · Cited by 128
A functional-cognitive framework for attitude research
Houwer, J. D., Gawronski, B., & Barnes‐Holmes, Y. (2013) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2014.892320 · Cited by 135
Generalization versus contextualization in automatic evaluation.
Gawronski, B., Rydell, R. J., Vervliet, B., & Houwer, J. D. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0020315 · Cited by 124
The Ecology of Automaticity
Cesario, J., Plaks, J. E., Hagiwara, N., Navarrete, C. D., & Higgins, E. T. (2010) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797610378685 · Cited by 125
Societal and Managerial Implications of Implicit Social Cognition: Why Milliseconds Matter
Chugh, D. (2004) · Social Justice Research · doi:10.1023/b:sore.0000027410.26010.40 · Cited by 123
“As an example, evaluative priming methods are a mature and well-studied example of latency-based implicit measures (Fazio et al., 1995).”
Implicit Self and Identity
Devos, T., & Banaji, M. R. (2003) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1279.009 · Cited by 152
Automatic Stereotyping: Category, Trait, and Behavioral Activations
Kawakami, K., Young, H., & Dovidio, J. F. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202281001 · Cited by 125
“For example, researchers have demonstrated the automatic activation of negative attitudes toward Blacks (Dovidio, Kawakami, Johnson, Johnson, & Howard, 1997; Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams, 1995; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) and positive attitudes toward the young and a generic ingroup (Perdue, Dovidio, Gu…”
Background
Inferential Correction
Gilbert, D. T. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.011 · Cited by 153
Fast and Fragile
Deutsch, R., Kordts-Freudinger, R., Gawronski, B., & Strack, F. (2009) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169.56.6.434 · Cited by 122
“1 Note that even though Fazio et al. (1995) used the term BFP in their original presentation of the task, they have rarely used this label since”
BackgroundMethod
Racial prejudice predicts opposition to Obama and his health care reform plan
Knowles, E. D., Lowery, B. S., & Schaumberg, R. L. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.10.011 · Cited by 123
“Implicit prejudice was conceptualized as the negative evaluation of Blacks as group, or the association in participants’ minds between the category Black and the attribute bad (Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald & Nosek, 2001; Hofmann, Gschwendner, Castelli, & Schmitt, 2008; McConnell & Leibold, 2001).”
Background
Counterfactual Thought, Regret, and Superstition: How to Avoid Kicking Yourself
Miller, D. T., & Taylor, B. R. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.023 · Cited by 120
The Causes and Consequences of an Avoidance-Focus for Interracial Interactions
Plant, E. A., & Butz, D. A. (2006) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167206287182 · Cited by 123
“Plant and Devine presented evidence from two studies supporting their model by demonstrating that White people who had negative expectancies about the outcomes of interactions with Black people were more anxious about these interactions, more avoidance-focused regarding interracial interactions, and ultimately, more l…”
Result
Ways to be Blameworthy
Mason, E. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198833604.001.0001 · Cited by 122
The Reliability of Implicit Stereotyping
Kawakami, K., & Dovidio, J. F. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167201272007 · Cited by 122
Can Descriptive Representation Change Beliefs about a Stigmatized Group? Evidence from Rural India
Chauchard, S. (2014) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055414000033 · Cited by 119
“They are deeply ingrained (Allport 1954; Devine 1989; Fazio et al. 1995) and too stable (Fiske 1998) to be influenced by new information acquired through exposure to a single member of a disadvantaged group in a stereotype-inconsistent position.”
Background
The development of spontaneous gender stereotyping in childhood: relations to stereotype knowledge and stereotype flexibility
Banse, R., Gawronski, B., Rebetez, C., Gutt, H., & Morton, J. B. (2009) · Developmental Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00880.x · Cited by 120
A lesson in bias: The relationship between implicit racial bias and performance in pedagogical contexts
Jacoby-Senghor, D. S., Sinclair, S. A., & Shelton, J. N. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.10.010 · Cited by 121
Evaluative Conditioning
Jones, C., Olson, M. A., & Fázio, R. H. (2010) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(10)43005-1 · Cited by 135
Self-citation
Brief Report: Thin Slices of Racial Bias
Richeson, J. A., & Shelton, J. N. (2005) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-004-0890-2 · Cited by 122
“There is a strong tradition in research on intergroup relations and prejudice to examine nonverbal aspects of behavior in order to assess prejudice (e.g., Dovidio et al., 1997, 2000; Fazio et al., 1995; McConnell & Leibold, 2001; Sekaquaptewa et al., 2003; Weitz, 1972; Word, Zanna, & Cooper, 1974).”
Background
Group‐based Differences in Perceptions of Racism: What Counts, to Whom, and Why?
Carter, E. R., & Murphy, M. C. (2015) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12181 · Cited by 139
Should We Stop Looking for a Better Scoring Algorithm for Handling Implicit Association Test Data? Test of the Role of Errors, Extreme Latencies Treatment, Scoring Formula, and Practice Trials on Reliability and Validity
Richetin, J., Costantini, G., Perugini, M., & Schönbrodt, F. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0129601 · Cited by 119
“For example, Krause et al. [7], pointed out that trimming raw latencies before computing the scores for the Affective Priming Task [21] and the Identification-Extrinsic Affective Simon Task [22] increased the reliability of the scores from .55 to .67 and from .51 to .64, respectively (first occasion of measurement, Ta…”
Method
Activation of Political Attitudes: A Psychophysiological Examination of the Hot Cognition Hypothesis
Morris, J. P., Squires, N. K., Taber, C. S., & Lodge, M. G. (2003) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1046/j.1467-9221.2003.00349.x · Cited by 121
“Similar to the procedures of Fazio et al. (1986), the five strongest positive and five strongest negative political attitude objects were selected on the basis of the shortest response latencies.”
Method
Understanding Misunderstanding: Social Psychological Perspectives
Pronin, E., Puccio, C., & Ross, L. D. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.038 · Cited by 120
Implicit Attitudes, Explicit Choices: When Subliminal Priming Predicts Candidate Preference
Kam, C. (2007) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-007-9030-0 · Cited by 126
The Effect of Gender Stereotypes on Explicit and Implicit Career Preferences
Polack, R. G., & Gati, I. (2009) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000009334093 · Cited by 119
“Specifically, although individuals reported that they were unaffected by these stereotypes when they were explicitly asked, implicit measures showed that they were nevertheless affected by them (Fazio et al., 1995).”
Background
A Social-Psychological Analysis of HIV-Related Stigma
Pryor, J. B., Reeder, G. D., & Landau, S. E. (1999) · American Behavioral Scientist · doi:10.1177/0002764299042007010 · Cited by 119
Items’ Cross-Category Associations as a Confounding Factor in the Implicit Association Test
Steffens, M. C., & Plewe, I. (2001) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1026//0949-3946.48.2.123 · Cited by 116
Beyond judgment bias: How students’ ethnicity and academic profile consistency influence teachers’ tracking judgments
Glock, S., Krolak‐Schwerdt, S., Klapproth, F., & Böhmer, M. (2013) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-013-9227-5 · Cited by 130
How Dissociated Are Implicit and Explicit Racial Attitudes? A Bogus Pipeline Approach
Nier, J. A. (2004) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430205048615 · Cited by 118
The social neuroscience of intergroup relations
Amodio, D. M. (2008) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280801927937 · Cited by 118
“Extant research on implicit bias reduction has generally assumed that all forms of implicit bias, including stereotypes and evaluations, and attitudes more generally, are learned and stored in the same type of semantic network (Fazio et al., 1995; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
When is a compliment not a compliment? Evaluating expressions of positive stereotypes
Czopp, A. M. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.12.007 · Cited by 117
Why some groups just feel better: The regulatory fit of group power.
Sassenberg, K., Jonas, K. J., Shah, J. Y., & Brazy, P. C. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.249 · Cited by 116
Resistance to extinction in evaluative conditioning.
Vansteenwegen, D., Francken, G., Vervliet, B., Clercq, A. D., & Eelen, P. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Animal Behavior Processes · doi:10.1037/0097-7403.32.1.71 · Cited by 116
Negativity bias, positivity bias, and valence asymmetries: Explaining the differential processing of positive and negative information
(2020) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2020.04.005 · Cited by 112
Implicit but not explicit self-esteem predicts future depressive symptomatology
Franck, E., Raedt, R. D., & Houwer, J. D. (2007) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.01.008 · Cited by 115
The intergenerational transmission of implicit and explicit attitudes toward smoking: Predicting adolescent smoking initiation
Sherman, S. J., Chassin, L., Presson, C. C., Seo, D., & Macy, J. T. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.09.012 · Cited by 116
“In addition, for such issues it is typically implicit measures that more successfully predict relevant behaviors (Dovidio et al., 1997;Fazio et al., 1995;Perdue & Gurtman, 1990).”
Background
Are Conservatives Really More Simple‐Minded than Liberals? The Domain Specificity of Complex Thinking
Conway, L. G., Gornick, L. J., Houck, S. C., Anderson, C., Stockert, J., Sessoms, D., & McCue, K. (2015) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12304 · Cited by 116
Reliability of the Go/No Go Association Task
Williams, B. J., & Kaufmann, L. M. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.03.001 · Cited by 112
Body Dissatisfaction Revisited: On the Importance of Implicit Beliefs about Actual and Ideal Body Image
Heider, N., Spruyt, A., & Houwer, J. D. (2018) · Psychologica Belgica · doi:10.5334/pb.362 · Cited by 117
The Self-Organization of Explicit Attitudes
Wojnowicz, M., Ferguson, M. J., Dale, R. A. C., & Spivey, M. J. (2009) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02448.x · Cited by 114
“From this perspective, the research documenting pro-White implicit attitudes (e.g., Fazio et al., 1995) suggests that a stimulus referring to a Black person, compared with a stimulus referring to a White person, may evoke greater conflict distributed across probabilistic information sources as the…”
Background
Implicit Attitudes Toward Violence Among Male Perpetrators of Intimate Partner Violence
Eckhardt, C. I., Samper, R. E., Suhr, L., & Holtzworth‐Munroe, A. (2012) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260511421677 · Cited by 114
“Although it is tempting to regard the IAT as a measure that can access a “bona fide pipeline” of one’s true attitudes and mental representations (e.g., Fazio et al., 1995), prior research suggests that responses to the IAT can be influenced by contextual 486 Journal of Interpersonal Violence…”
Background
Positive Associations Among Interpersonal Contact, Motivation, and Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Gay Men
Lemm, K. M. (2006) · Journal of Homosexuality · doi:10.1300/j082v51n02_05 · Cited by 112
“The studies of both Fazio et al. (1995) and Banse et al. (2001) used a measure of motivation to control prejudice that did not distinguish between internal versus external sources of motivation.”
Background

Authors: Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., & Williams, C. J.
ORCID: Fazio, Russell H.
Williams, Carol J.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1995-12
Volume: 69
Issue: 6
Pages: 1013-1027
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.69.6.1013
OpenAlex: W4240262739
Cited by: 1,793
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 12 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 56 · 2023: 55 · 2022: 57 · 2021: 79 · 2020: 80 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 86 · 2016: 76 · 2015: 84 · 2014: 83 · 2013: 70 · 2012: 80
FWCI: 42.74
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Keywords: automatic activation, racial attitudes, implicit attitudes, unobtrusive measurement, measurement reliability, Implicit Association Test

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Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline?

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