The DOI matches its Crossref record; 68 of the 68 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Cyberostracism: effects of being ignored over the Internet
Abstract
Ostracism is such a widely used and powerful tactic that the authors tested whether people would be affected by it even under remote and artificial circumstances. In Study 1, 1,486 participants from 62 countries accessed the authors' on-line experiment on the Internet. They were asked to use mental visualization while playing a virtual tossing game with two others (who were actually computer generated and controlled). Despite the minimal nature of their experience, the more participants were ostracized, the more they reported feeling bad, having less control, and losing a sense of belonging. In Study 2, ostracized participants were more likely to conform on a subsequent task. The results are discussed in terms of supporting K. D. Williams's (1997) need threat theory of ostracism.
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In the citing paper
“Ostracized participants subsequently report lower levels of belonging, self-esteem, and meaningful existence, as well as a reduced sense of need (Williams, Cheung, & Choi, 2000; Zadro et al., 2004).”
From Toward objective characterizations of suicide risk: A narrative review of laboratory-based cognitive and behavioral tasks (2023) · cites this paper as Williams, Cheung, & Choi, 2000
In the citing paper
“An experimental design which has proven to be a reliable paradigm to elicit exclusion-related distress is a virtual ball-tossing game called Cyberball”
From Chronic Childhood Peer Rejection is Associated with Heightened Neural Responses to Social Exclusion During Adolescence (2016) · cites this paper as Williams et al. 2000
In the citing paper
“In a similar vein, threats to one’s need to belong [53], and one’s sense of personal control [34], increase conformity and support for the national government, respectively.”
From The amoral atheist? A cross-national examination of cultural, motivational, and cognitive antecedents of disbelief, and their implications for morality (2021) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“based on a substantial literature linking various existential threats to increased group cohesion [34, 51–54]”
From The amoral atheist? A cross-national examination of cultural, motivational, and cognitive antecedents of disbelief, and their implications for morality (2021) · cites this paper as [53]
In the citing paper
“Cyberball (Williams, Cheung, & Choi, 2000) is a virtual ball-tossing game commonly used to simulate social exclusion in neuroimaging studies (for review and meta-analysis, see Vijayakumar, Cheng, & Pfeifer, 2017).”
From Feeling left out or just surprised? Neural correlates of social exclusion and overinclusion in adolescence (2020) · cites this paper as Williams, Cheung, & Choi, 2000
In the citing paper
“The social exclusion manipulation employed the Cyberball game (Williams et al., 2000) which creates the subjective experience of being excluded using a computerized ball-toss game played by the subject and two peers ostensibly connected via the Internet.”
From Risk-taking and social exclusion in adolescence: neural mechanisms underlying peer influences on decision-making (2013) · cites this paper as Williams et al., 2000
Citations
Cites
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Society and the Adolescent Self-Image
Rosenberg, M. (1965) · doi:10.1515/9781400876136 · Cited by 30,126
The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation.
Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037//0033-2909.117.3.497 · Cited by 23,245
The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behavior
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2004) · Political Psychology · doi:10.4324/9780203505984-16 · Cited by 13,467
Psychology of intergroup relations
Austin, W. G., & Worchel, S. (1986) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 10,626
Rediscovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization Theory.
Willer, D., Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1989) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.2307/2073157 · Cited by 7,207
Helplessness: On Depression, Development, and Death
Seligman, M. E. P. (1975) · CERN Document Server (European Organization for Nuclear Research) · Cited by 6,181
Internet paradox: A social technology that reduces social involvement and psychological well-being?
Kraut, R., Patterson, M., Lundmark, V., Kiesler, S., Mukophadhyay, T., & Scherlis, W. (1998) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.53.9.1017 · Cited by 4,793
Studies of independence and conformity: I. A minority of one against a unanimous majority
Asch, S. E. (1956) · Psychological Monographs: General and Applied · doi:10.1037/h0093718 · Cited by 4,267
The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self
Steele, C. M. (1988) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60229-4 · Cited by 3,697
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Schulz, C. C., von Klitzing, K., Deserno, L., Sheridan, M. A., Crowley, M. J., Schoett, M. J. S., Hoffmann, F., Villringer, A., Vrtička, P., & White, L. O. (2022) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579421001681 · Cited by 19
Social media ills and evolutionary mismatches: a conceptual framework
Lim, A. J., & Tan, E. (2024) · Evolutionary Psychological Science · doi:10.1007/s40806-024-00398-z · Cited by 18
“Adaptive behaviors, such as increased effort into group tasks (Williams & Sommer, 1997), conforming to group norms (Williams et al., 2000), as well as compensatory cooperation (Ouwerkerk et al., 2005), are some of the well-documented responses to social exclusion.”
What is (not) ghosting? A theoretical analysis via three key pillars
Schokkenbroek, J. M., Telari, A., Pancani, L., & Riva, P. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2025.108637 · Cited by 17
Toeing the Party Lie: Ostracism Promotes Endorsement of Partisan Election Falsehoods
Garrett, R. K., Sude, D., & Riva, P. (2020) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2019.1666943 · Cited by 15
Reyes, M. E. S., Morales, B. C. C., Javier, G. E., Ng, R. A. E., & Zsila, Á. (2022) · Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s41347-022-00262-6 · Cited by 17
Lamontagne, S. J., Zabala, P. K., Zarate, C. A., & Ballard, E. D. (2023) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2023.105361 · Cited by 12
Recipients' happiness in prosocial spending: The role of social ties
Zhang, W., Pan, J., Liu, J., Zhang, Y., & Chen, M. (2021) · Journal of Consumer Affairs · doi:10.1111/joca.12312 · Cited by 11
Sun, W., & Xu, S. (2026) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs16040494
“…giving (Cuadrado et al., 2016; Takhsha et al., 2020), whereas other studies emphasize that exclusion can stimulate compensatory affiliative motives, leading individuals to behave more conformingly or cooperatively in order to restore social connection (Maner et al., 2007; Williams et al., 2000).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Williams, K. D., Cheung, C. K. T., & Choi, W.
- Affiliations
- UNSW Sydney (AU)
- ORCID
- Williams, Kipling D.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2000
- Volume
- 79
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 748-762
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2087608601
- Cited by
- 2,276
- References
- 68
- Citations by year
- 2026: 91 · 2025: 125 · 2024: 128 · 2023: 131 · 2022: 114 · 2021: 150 · 2020: 136 · 2019: 116 · 2018: 138 · 2017: 136 · 2016: 121 · 2015: 133 · 2014: 130 · 2013: 143 · 2012: 101
- FWCI
- 15.02
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
- Keywords
- ostracism, need to belong, perceived control, conformity, virtual social interaction, mental visualization
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Analysis of Variance, Data Collection, Female, Group Processes, Humans, Male, Middle Aged, Surveys and Questionnaires, Rejection, Psychology, Research Design, Self Concept, Self Disclosure, Social Conformity, Social Isolation, Internet
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