Social media ills and evolutionary mismatches: a conceptual framework

“Evidently, collective effort and cohesion are imperative for human survival and reproductive fitness (Aronson, 1999; Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Brewer & Caporael, 2006; Darwin, 1871), and as such, humans evolved as group-living animals who are obligatorily interdependent on one another.”

“In essence, in social comparison, people derive various outcomes, including an evaluation of themselves (Festinger, 1954), regulation of emotions and well-being (Taylor & Brown, 1988), and aspirations to improve their skills or abilities (Wood, 1989).”

“Social media arose from the post-millennium paradigm shift in the usage of the World Wide Web (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010).”

“Weak ties aid the diffusion of information to and from the peripheries of one’s social network, facilitating information exchange (Granovetter, 1983).”

“In essence, in social comparison, people derive various outcomes, including an evaluation of themselves (Festinger, 1954), regulation of emotions and well-being (Taylor & Brown, 1988), and aspirations to improve their skills or abilities (Wood, 1989).”

“These readily available modes of communication are particularly crucial for fostering social interaction (see Kietzmann et al., 2011, for a review).”

“This asymmetry likely reflects the nature of intrasexual competition among females, where female reproductive values are strongly indicated by physical appearance and attractiveness (Buss, 1988; Buss & Schmitt, 1993).”

“When opportunity arises, personal interest sometimes precedes collective interest (Axelrod & Hamilton, 1981; Ferriere et al., 2002).”

““Fear of missing out” (FOMO; Przybylski et al., 2013) is defined as a persistent concern about potentially missing out on enjoyable experiences that others might be having when one is not present.”

“…of organisms living in close proximity mitigate the risk of pre-dation as collective vigilance and flight distance reduce the probability of any particular individual dying to a predator (Alexander, 1974; Hamilton, 1971; Hill & Lee, 1998; Olson et al., 2015; Powell, 1974; P. W. Sherman, 1977).”

“…of organisms living in close proximity mitigate the risk of pre-dation as collective vigilance and flight distance reduce the probability of any particular individual dying to a predator (Alexander, 1974; Hamilton, 1971; Hill & Lee, 1998; Olson et al., 2015; Powell, 1974; P. W. Sherman, 1977).”

“For instance, it was found that adolescents at risk of being bullied are also at risk of cyberbullying (Kowalski et al., 2014), and adolescents who have positive social relations offline are also more likely to have positive online social interactions (Valkenburg & Peter, 2007).”

“According to the cognitive-behavioral model of pathological internet use, individuals may consume social media excessively because it serves as a coping strategy for real-world negative emotions and troubles (Davis, 2001).”

“This subsequently facilitates the improvement of one’s mood and well-being (Pyszczynski et al., 1985; Wills, 1981).”

“Specifically, we have evolved to pay attention to limited social information, with constraints imposed by biological capacity (Dunbar, 1992, 2009; Hill & Dunbar, 2003), As such, rather than limiting social media consumption, adjusting the exposure to smaller network sizes on social media—one that…”

“The central tenet of the sociometer theory (Leary & Baumeister, 2000; Leary et al., 1998) is that self-esteem is an evaluative system that assesses the quality of our actual and potential relationships.”

“Once people’s self-esteem becomes negative, they are spurred into restorative behaviors (Gerber & Wheeler, 2009; Leary, 2005; Leary et al., 1995, 1998).”

“This is because our primal minds are optimized for problem-solving in a natural, ecological context with tangible links between behaviors and the environment (e.g., Cosmides, 1989).”

“Adaptive behaviors, such as increased effort into group tasks (Williams & Sommer, 1997), conforming to group norms (Williams et al., 2000), as well as compensatory cooperation (Ouwerkerk et al., 2005), are some of the well-documented responses to social exclusion.”

“Collectively, engaging in social media can bring about improved psychological well-being and life satisfaction (Kim & Lee, 2011; Valenzuela et al., 2009) as well as reduced stress via perceived social support (Marciano et al., 2022; Nabi et al., 2013).”

“Another study revealed that students dedicated more time to observing content on Facebook than actively creating and posting content (Pempek et al., 2009), indicating that social media platforms feed on people’s desire to monitor social information.”

“…their resource-holding potential—the potential for individuals to win resource contests or challenges given their ability and motivation relative to competitors (Parker, 1974; Rudin & Briffa, 2012)—thus facilitating survival and reproductive fitness by optimally directing competitive effort.”

“In essence, in social comparison, people derive various outcomes, including an evaluation of themselves (Festinger, 1954), regulation of emotions and well-being (Taylor & Brown, 1988), and aspirations to improve their skills or abilities (Wood, 1989).”

“EEA refers to the set of recurrent selective pressures that shape a given adaptation (Lewis et al., 2017; Tooby & Cosmides, 1990).”

“Punishment strategies via moral condemnation (DeScioli & Kurzban, 2013) and ostracism (Kurzban & Leary, 2001) emerged to deal with adaptive problems associated with within-group conflicts.”

“…the relationships between social media users and most of their connections are typically either latent—individuals have only fleeting awareness of each other—or weak, individuals only occasionally reach out to each other for information or other forms of minor support (Ellison et al., 2011).”

“Upward social comparisons are also associated with dissatisfaction and decreased self-esteem (Emmons & Diener, 1985; Taylor & Lobel, 1989; Wheeler & Miyake, 1992).”

“Social media satisfies people’s need for belongingness (Nadkarni & Hofmann, 2012).”

“Some psychological adaptations are species-typical; they are inherited and developed reliably because they consistently and effectively address challenges to survival and reproduction over alternate designs over human’s evolutionary history (Buss, 1995).”

“Furthermore, we also acknowledge several systematic societal problems, such as social inequality, which may contribute to, exacerbate, and complicate issues associated with social media ills (Odgers, 2018; Odgers & Jensen, 2020).”

“Online communications provide support networks that allow for hope, camaraderie, and assistance to individuals facing challenges and enduring difficulties (i.e., mental illnesses; Bucci et al., 2019; Naslund et al., 2014, 2016).”

“More frequent visits to social media platforms and more platforms accessed were associated with greater symptoms of depression and anxiety (Lin et al., 2016; Vannucci et al., 2017).”

“Specifically, we have evolved to pay attention to limited social information, with constraints imposed by biological capacity (Dunbar, 1992, 2009; Hill & Dunbar, 2003), As such, rather than limiting social media consumption, adjusting the exposure to smaller network sizes on social media—one that is more evolutionaril…”

“This arises from the fact that humans have evolved with a neocortex size optimized for maintaining a social network of approximately 150 individuals (Dunbar, 1998).”

“Specifically, we have evolved to pay attention to limited social information, with constraints imposed by biological capacity (Dunbar, 1992, 2009; Hill & Dunbar, 2003), As such, rather than limiting social media consumption, adjusting the exposure to smaller network sizes on social media—one that…”

“In more severe cases, social media use increases the likelihood of social media addiction and depression (Bányai et al., 2017; Morrison & Gore, 2010).”

“On occasions when people invol-untarily submit to superior others, they inhibit aggressive behaviors and experience low-arousal negative affects such as depression (Allan & Gilbert, 1995; Buunk & Brenninkmeyer, 2000; P. Gilbert & Allan, 1998; Price et al., 1994).”

“Moreover, imposing social media consumption discounts the benefits of social media; for instance, parasocial interactions on social media can increase trust between brands and consumers (see Labrecque, 2014).”

“Social media users meticulously choose and pre-sent the most positive and attractive aspects of their lives, such as flattering photographs, expensive goods, and personal successes (Blease, 2015; Gonzales & Hancock, 2011; Siibak, 2009).”

“Collectively, engaging in social media can bring about improved psychological well-being and life satisfaction (Kim & Lee, 2011; Valenzuela et al., 2009) as well as reduced stress via perceived social support (Marciano et al., 2022; Nabi et al., 2013).”

“Having a good reputation is an essential social commodity people strive for (Baumeister, 1982; Van Vugt & Hardy, 2010); reputational information allows people to know who they are dealing with, which can determine the extent of cooperation they may receive from others (Dunbar, 2004; Emler, 1990).”

“This asymmetry likely reflects the nature of intrasexual competition among females, where female reproductive values are strongly indicated by physical appearance and attractiveness (Buss, 1988; Buss & Schmitt, 1993).”

“…of organisms living in close proximity mitigate the risk of pre-dation as collective vigilance and flight distance reduce the probability of any particular individual dying to a predator (Alexander, 1974; Hamilton, 1971; Hill & Lee, 1998; Olson et al., 2015; Powell, 1974; P. W. Sherman, 1977).”

“Primates, in particular, tend to have an unusually large brain size, which is primarily driven by the size of the neocortex (Jerison, 1973).”

“Individuals who used between 7 and 11 different social media platforms were three times more likely to display more severe depressive and anxiety symptoms than those who used two or fewer social media platforms (Primack et al., 2017).”

“Past studies have shown that people with higher self-esteem are more likely to draw other’s attention to their desirable qualities (Baumeister et al., 1989).”

“The socio-cognitive model of internet addiction is an alternative model that attempts to explain social media’s underlying appeal to people (LaRose et al., 2003).”

“…of information about food availability, the social monitoring system is activated by situational (e.g., immediate threat of social exclusion; Gardner et al., 2000) or chronic (e.g., individual differences, see Pickett et al., 2004) need for belonging, which increases sensitivity to social cues.”

“This premise also implies that social interaction in human evolution past is likely conducted with identities largely known to the participating parties, given the small group size and the lower degree of separation within a social network (Christakis & Fowler, 2009; Hill & Dunbar, 2003).”

“With the emergence of generative artificial intelligence (Stokel-Walker & Van Noorden, 2023), we are not far from a future filled with artificial stimuli that evolved psychological mechanisms maladaptively preferred or forced to process.”

“Social relationships are cognitively costly due to the many-fold demands of maintaining cognitive and behavioral coordination with many social others (Dunbar, 2009).”

“These relationships engendered feelings of intimacy and closeness with media characters mirroring a real social relationship (Dibble et al., 2016).”

“For instance, it was found that adolescents at risk of being bullied are also at risk of cyberbullying (Kowalski et al., 2014), and adolescents who have positive social relations offline are also more likely to have positive online social interactions (Valkenburg & Peter, 2007).”

“Over time, the regular use of social media can result in negative moods and a reduction in subjective well-being and life satisfaction (Sagioglou & Greitemeyer, 2014; Valkenburg et al., 2022).”

“…experimentally manipulated conditions of anonymity, lack of visibility of social partners, and lack of eye contact—typical characteristics of anonymous social media interactions—it results in the highest level of inci-vility between participants during chat sessions (Lapidot-Lefler & Barak, 2012).”

“In contrast, individuals with inferior strength and abilities are placed in an unfavorable position where displaying submissive behaviors and avoiding attacks or challenges is more beneficial (Gilbert et al., 1995a).”

“Consequently, some people develop an unhealthy fixation on sharing content that may compromise their self-image, including images of themselves in revealing attire or participating in sensa-tional or controversial actions to garner increased attention (Chua & Chang, 2016).”

“Upward social comparisons are also associated with dissatisfaction and decreased self-esteem (Emmons & Diener, 1985; Taylor & Lobel, 1989; Wheeler & Miyake, 1992).”

“People have an innate tendency to compare themselves to others (Festinger, 1954)—a tendency so pervasive that some scholars regard it as an inevitable consequence of social interaction as long as relative information between self and others is available (Wood, 1989, 1996).”

“…has diminishing returns for sated individuals (Winterhalder, 1996a); distributing excess food resources not only facilitates cooperative defense of the common food source (Winterhalder, 1996b), but it also allows those with excess food resources to generate reciprocity debt (Kaplan et al., 1985).”

“Adaptive behaviors, such as increased effort into group tasks (Williams & Sommer, 1997), conforming to group norms (Williams et al., 2000), as well as compensatory cooperation (Ouwerkerk et al., 2005), are some of the well-documented responses to social exclusion.”

“Given the rapidly changing usage and functionality of social media, defining what constitutes “Social Media” is a challenge (for a systematic review, see Aichner et al., 2021).”

“These mechanisms emerged from natural selection to address adaptive problems in survival and reproduction in ancestral environments (Buss, 1995; Lewis et al., 2017; Tooby & Cosmides, 1990, 1992).”

“More frequent visits to social media platforms and more platforms accessed were associated with greater symptoms of depression and anxiety (Lin et al., 2016; Vannucci et al., 2017).”

“However, social acceptance is assumed when self-esteem is relatively high, and further positive feedback yields little improvement (Leary, 2005; Leary et al., 1998).”

“…comparison promotes body image dissatisfaction in both males and females, some research has suggested that the presentation of idealized beauty impacts body image slightly more negatively for adolescent girls than boys (e.g., Feingold & Mazzella, 1998; Haidt, 2024; Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004).”

“On occasions when people invol-untarily submit to superior others, they inhibit aggressive behaviors and experience low-arousal negative affects such as depression (Allan & Gilbert, 1995; Buunk & Brenninkmeyer, 2000; P. Gilbert & Allan, 1998; Price et al., 1994).”

“…in controlling the extent to which they reveal their identity online also affords anonymity, which can be especially beneficial for individuals with stigmatizing physical and mental health conditions seeking to establish social connections (Berger et al., 2005; Highton-Williamson et al., 2015).”

“On occasions when people invol-untarily submit to superior others, they inhibit aggressive behaviors and experience low-arousal negative affects such as depression (Allan & Gilbert, 1995; Buunk & Brenninkmeyer, 2000; P. Gilbert & Allan, 1998; Price et al., 1994).”

“…of organisms living in close proximity mitigate the risk of pre-dation as collective vigilance and flight distance reduce the probability of any particular individual dying to a predator (Alexander, 1974; Hamilton, 1971; Hill & Lee, 1998; Olson et al., 2015; Powell, 1974; P. W. Sherman, 1977).”

“Collectively, engaging in social media can bring about improved psychological well-being and life satisfaction (Kim & Lee, 2011; Valenzuela et al., 2009) as well as reduced stress via perceived social support (Marciano et al., 2022; Nabi et al., 2013).”

“Meta-analysis has shown that social rejection tends to lower mood and self-esteem, motivating behaviors to regain control or a sense of belonging (Gerber & Wheeler, 2009).”

“Media literary—media knowledge and criticism—has successfully reduced media realism, desirable media por-trayals of social actors, and harmful media effects (Jeong et al., 2012; Vahedi et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2019).”

“Given the intense selective pressure that favored group living, humans’ need to belong and the desire for social acceptance evolved as mechanisms to encourage affilia-tive actions and boost the chances of being accepted into social groups (Buss, 1990; Leary, 1999).”

“While this technological transformation offers unprecedented opportunities for connectivity and communication, it has also raised critical public concerns and prompted substantial research inquiries (e.g., Kross et al., 2021; Piazza & Bering, 2009).”

“Within-group relations are occasionally aggressive or even violent (Buss & Shackelford, 1997).”

“Across multiple social species, natural selection has favored individuals motivated to form strong, enduring friendships that aided each other’s survival and reproductive successes (Seyfarth & Cheney, 2012).”

“This is because close bonds and strong ties are the foundation of cooperation among social animals (Mitani, 2009; Seyfarth & Cheney, 2012; Silk, 2009).”

“Online communications provide support networks that allow for hope, camaraderie, and assistance to individuals facing challenges and enduring difficulties (i.e., mental illnesses; Bucci et al., 2019; Naslund et al., 2014, 2016).”

“In more severe cases, social media use increases the likelihood of social media addiction and depression (Bányai et al., 2017; Morrison & Gore, 2010).”

“…comparison promotes body image dissatisfaction in both males and females, some research has suggested that the presentation of idealized beauty impacts body image slightly more negatively for adolescent girls than boys (e.g., Feingold & Mazzella, 1998; Haidt, 2024; Hargreaves & Tiggemann, 2004).”

“In an experiment exposing original or manipulated photos to adolescent girls, girls with higher social comparison tendencies reported poorer body image (Kleemans et al., 2018).”

“FOMO represents the cognitive bias related to one’s perceived social resources and is a key driver of the severity of problematic use (Dempsey et al., 2019; Elhai et al., 2020; Franchina et al., 2018).”

“Other studies have also found that online forums that allow for anonymous comments see double the rate of incivility and ad hominem attacks in discussing sensitive topics compared to forums that do not permit anonymity (Santana, 2014).”

“Over time, the regular use of social media can result in negative moods and a reduction in subjective well-being and life satisfaction (Sagioglou & Greitemeyer, 2014; Valkenburg et al., 2022).”

“The central tenet of the sociometer theory (Leary & Baumeister, 2000; Leary et al., 1998) is that self-esteem is an evaluative system that assesses the quality of our actual and potential relationships.”

“The consequences of prolonged and intensive social media usage have become a focal point of attention, with growing awareness of potential detrimental implications for mental health, privacy, and societal dynamics (e.g., Howard & Parks, 2012; Kross et al., 2021; Smith et al., 2012).”

“In an experiment where the number of likes for a personal photograph was manipulated, those who received more likes for their photograph reported heightened self-esteem, whereas not having enough likes resulted in poorer mood and lower levels of self-esteem (Burrow & Rainone, 2017).”

“FOMO represents the cognitive bias related to one’s perceived social resources and is a key driver of the severity of problematic use (Dempsey et al., 2019; Elhai et al., 2020; Franchina et al., 2018).”

“Evidently, collective effort and cohesion are imperative for human survival and reproductive fitness (Aronson, 1999; Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Brewer & Caporael, 2006; Darwin, 1871), and as such, humans evolved as group-living animals who are obligatorily interdependent on one another.”

“Division of labor, group defenses, and communal parenting—afforded by group living—provided a buffer against external threats (Kenrick et al., 2003).”

“Likewise, lonely participants remember social events better and are more attentive toward social cues in the face and voice (Gardner et al., 2005).”

“The act of bullying, for instance, offers benefits such as access to social and material resources, deterrence from being aggressed against, and some conferences of prestige (Volk et al., 2012, 2022).”

“Environmental change can also cause certain environmental stimuli to become favored over the stimuli the mechanism is designed to process (Li et al., 2018).”

“Parasocial relationships—unilateral relationships people have with media characters or celebrities—are made possible (Rubin & Step, 2000).”

“…of evolved psychological mechanisms and the role of evolutionary mismatch—particularly, mismatches inducing negative consequences or costs to individuals and society—may be able to lead to more informed problem-solving and public policy (Griskevicius et al., 2012; Li et al., 2018, 2020).”

“Online communications provide support networks that allow for hope, camaraderie, and assistance to individuals facing challenges and enduring difficulties (i.e., mental illnesses; Bucci et al., 2019; Naslund et al., 2014, 2016).”

“In contrast, individuals with inferior strength and abilities are placed in an unfavorable position where displaying submissive behaviors and avoiding attacks or challenges is more beneficial (Gilbert et al., 1995a).”

“Having a good reputation is an essential social commodity people strive for (Baumeister, 1982; Van Vugt & Hardy, 2010); reputational information allows people to know who they are dealing with, which can determine the extent of cooperation they may receive from others (Dunbar, 2004; Emler, 1990).”

“When opportunity arises, personal interest sometimes precedes collective interest (Axelrod & Hamilton, 1981; Ferriere et al., 2002).”

“Punishment strategies via moral condemnation (DeScioli & Kurzban, 2013) and ostracism (Kurzban & Leary, 2001) emerged to deal with adaptive problems associated with within-group conflicts.”

“Although existing research and theories have revealed who is most vulnerable to social media harm (George & Odgers, 2015; Kreski et al., 2021; Odgers, 2018; Odgers & Jensen, 2020) and outlined how problem use develops and manifests (Davis, 2001; LaRose et al., 2003), it does not explain why social…”

“Having a good reputation is an essential social commodity people strive for (Baumeister, 1982; Van Vugt & Hardy, 2010); reputational information allows people to know who they are dealing with, which can determine the extent of cooperation they may receive from others (Dunbar, 2004; Emler, 1990).”

“These curated contents induce body image dissatisfaction and low self-esteem (Blomfield Neira & Barber, 2014; Harriger et al., 2023).”

“For example, people tend to see social media news with more likes as more credible (Luo et al., 2022).”

“For instance, when people are motivated to develop mastery over a task, high-performing others become a source of information (Butler, 1992; Darnon et al., 2006).”

“Evidently, persistent engagement in social media use exacerbates these adverse effects (Scott et al., 2019).”

“The consequences of prolonged and intensive social media usage have become a focal point of attention, with growing awareness of potential detrimental implications for mental health, privacy, and societal dynamics (e.g., Howard & Parks, 2012; Kross et al., 2021; Smith et al., 2012).”

“Each mechanism receives inputs from the environment as stimuli and processes these inputs with algorithmic decision rules to generate outputs in the form of cognition, emotion, attitudes, and behaviors (Buss, 1995; Lewis et al., 2017).”

“Indeed, fMRI imaging shows that brain activity following the experience of receiving like activates brain regions associated with rewards (L. E. Sherman et al., 2018).”

“In an experimental study, upward social comparison is induced by simultaneously providing participants with performance feedback on two different tasks (Tesser & Campbell, 1980).”

“…learning is biased toward displays of skills, success, and prestige because these cues probabilistically contain instructive information that aids survival odds and reproductive success with little learning cost in energy, time, and opportunities (Henrich & McElreath, 2007; Kendal et al., 2009).”

“This subsequently facilitates the improvement of one’s mood and well-being (Pyszczynski et al., 1985; Wills, 1981).”

“Recent studies also indicate that heavy use of social media is consistently associated with adverse mental health outcomes at non-trivial levels, especially for girls (Twenge et al., 2022).”

“…learning is biased toward displays of skills, success, and prestige because these cues probabilistically contain instructive information that aids survival odds and reproductive success with little learning cost in energy, time, and opportunities (Henrich & McElreath, 2007; Kendal et al., 2009).”

“…of organisms living in close proximity mitigate the risk of pre-dation as collective vigilance and flight distance reduce the probability of any particular individual dying to a predator (Alexander, 1974; Hamilton, 1971; Hill & Lee, 1998; Olson et al., 2015; Powell, 1974; P. W. Sherman, 1977).”

“It was also found that adolescents from lower-income families are more likely to experience spillovers of negative experiences on social media and offline conflicts (Odgers, 2018).”

“For instance, when people are motivated to develop mastery over a task, high-performing others become a source of information (Butler, 1992; Darnon et al., 2006).”

“Given the intense selective pressure that favored group living, humans’ need to belong and the desire for social acceptance evolved as mechanisms to encourage affilia-tive actions and boost the chances of being accepted into social groups (Buss, 1990; Leary, 1999).”

“Social media users meticulously choose and pre-sent the most positive and attractive aspects of their lives, such as flattering photographs, expensive goods, and personal successes (Blease, 2015; Gonzales & Hancock, 2011; Siibak, 2009).”

“A higher follower and a lower following count are associated with more addictive social media use and a higher likelihood of cyberbullying victimization, which in turn reduces happiness (Longobardi et al., 2020).”

“However, we have faced similar crossroads in the past, where there have been positive changes following the introduction of social policies and a change of social norms regarding smoking (e.g., Jha et al., 2006) and seat belts use (e.g., Shults et al., 2004).”

“People also remember content that they post better if they receive more likes (Zell & Moeller, 2018).”

“When people engage in social comparison with online friends and celebrities on social media, they may develop body image dissatisfaction and, in serious cases, body dysmorphic disorder symptomologies (Ho et al., 2016; Modica, 2020; Ryding & Kuss, 2020; Scully et al., 2023).”

“These “social media ills” encompass the less-than-desirable outcomes commonly associated with social media usage, such as problematic use and relationship dissatisfaction (Bányai et al., 2017; Sbarra et al., 2019).”

“They may also create temporary or disposable accounts, which facilitates concealing one’s identity on these platforms (Leavitt, 2015).”

“Much like TV friends and pornography (Kanazawa, 2002; Money & Ehrhardt, 1972), humans did not encounter these stimuli in the ancestral past, but these stimuli share similar attributes to actual social cues and comparison targets; now, these stimuli replace actual social cues as input to…”

“Yet, women and adolescent girls are frequently exposed to unrealistic beauty standards on social media that distort the social comparison process (Scully et al., 2023).”

“This is because close bonds and strong ties are the foundation of cooperation among social animals (Mitani, 2009; Seyfarth & Cheney, 2012; Silk, 2009).”

“Anonymity emboldens people to cyberbullying on social media (Barlett, 2015), and cyberbullies also typically expect no consequences for their actions (Pettalia et al., 2013).”

“Likewise, individuals with higher self-esteem are always eager to engage in social activities, regardless of whether social acceptance is guaranteed, as they anticipate positive social outcomes (Anthony et al., 2007).”

“Such preference is well-adapted for a cal-orie-scarce ecology (Eaton et al., 1996).”

“Having a good reputation is an essential social commodity people strive for (Baumeister, 1982; Van Vugt & Hardy, 2010); reputational information allows people to know who they are dealing with, which can determine the extent of cooperation they may receive from others (Dunbar, 2004; Emler, 1990).”

“Strong ties reduce defection risk and increase reciprocation odds (Bissonnette et al., 2015).”

“For instance, people are slow to adopt pro-environmental behaviors because the threat of climate change does not pre-sent itself in ways that are amendable to human’s evolved psychological biases (Van Vugt et al., 2014).”

“In this way, not only do individual users benefit from timely access to relevant information and opportunities (Utz, 2016), but businesses, institutions, and enterprises can also enjoy the wide reach of audience within social media, which is integral to communication arsenals in modern economies…”

“Upward social comparisons are also associated with dissatisfaction and decreased self-esteem (Emmons & Diener, 1985; Taylor & Lobel, 1989; Wheeler & Miyake, 1992).”

“While this can offer opportunities for free expression and open dialogue, especially for sensitive issues and stigmatized groups (Rains, 2014), anonymity on social media platforms also carries the potential for harm.”

“As such, the hijacked sociometer may likely signal to people that their inclusionary is under threat, which can explain why people are fixated on getting more likes and followers (Nesi & Prinstein, 2019).”

“Moreover, it was shown that Facebook content receives more “Likes” and comments due to the dynamic recommendation of content based on the Facebook algorithm (Wang et al., 2013).”

“When people engage in social comparison with online friends and celebrities on social media, they may develop body image dissatisfaction and, in serious cases, body dysmorphic disorder symptomologies (Ho et al., 2016; Modica, 2020; Ryding & Kuss, 2020; Scully et al., 2023).”

“…not only do individual users benefit from timely access to relevant information and opportunities (Utz, 2016), but businesses, institutions, and enterprises can also enjoy the wide reach of audience within social media, which is integral to communication arsenals in modern economies (Kim, 2018).”

“This effect is even stronger for those who are already bullied and socially excluded offline (Lee et al., 2020).”

“…offers a level of control over personal image and narrative that allows individuals to easily manipulate or magnify their actual levels of attractiveness and success to portray a “perfect” life and enhance their reputation (Blease, 2015; Gonzales & Hancock, 2011; Siibak, 2009; Vogel & Rose, 2016).”

“These curated contents induce body image dissatisfaction and low self-esteem (Blomfield Neira & Barber, 2014; Harriger et al., 2023).”

“Media literary—media knowledge and criticism—has successfully reduced media realism, desirable media por-trayals of social actors, and harmful media effects (Jeong et al., 2012; Vahedi et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2019).”

“However, they seem to prefer to mate with beer bottles, primarily because of their relatively large size compared to female beetles (Gwynne & Rentz, 1983).”

“In a series of judgment experiments (DeScioli et al., 2011a, b), participants were tasked with judging if an actor was wrong in a scenario that resulted in the death of others.”

“Such comparisons allow people to adopt a different standard of evaluation, which changes their perception of the situation to be more acceptable—or, in some cases, favorable (e.g., VanderZee et al., 1995).”

“FOMO represents the cognitive bias related to one’s perceived social resources and is a key driver of the severity of problematic use (Dempsey et al., 2019; Elhai et al., 2020; Franchina et al., 2018).”

“This assessment is carried out in terms of how much other people value social interaction with us (Bale & Archer, 2013).”

“On the other hand, upward comparison can also be threatening (Muller & Fayant, 2010).”

“Self-esteem is negatively related to time spent on social media and problematic social media use (Gori et al., 2023).”

“Group living allowed humans to cope with an environment with predators and an inconsistent supply of shelter, water, and food (Boinski & Garber, 2000; Foley, 1998; Wilson, 1975).”

“Although existing research and theories have revealed who is most vulnerable to social media harm (George & Odgers, 2015; Kreski et al., 2021; Odgers, 2018; Odgers & Jensen, 2020) and outlined how problem use develops and manifests (Davis, 2001; LaRose et al., 2003), it does not explain why social…”

“Anonymity emboldens people to cyberbullying on social media (Barlett, 2015), and cyberbullies also typically expect no consequences for their actions (Pettalia et al., 2013).”

“Excess food availability has diminishing returns for sated individuals (Winterhalder, 1996a); distributing excess food resources not only facilitates cooperative defense of the common food source (Winterhalder, 1996b), but it also allows those with excess food resources to generate reciprocity debt…”

“However, we have faced similar crossroads in the past, where there have been positive changes following the introduction of social policies and a change of social norms regarding smoking (e.g., Jha et al., 2006) and seat belts use (e.g., Shults et al., 2004).”

“…its adaptive function of satisfying our innate need for belongingness while, at the same time, allowing people to benefit from the rapid diffusion of information from weak ties (Granovetter, 1983) that have proven helpful in various aspect of life, such as for job-seeking (Brown & Konrad, 2001).”

“In a series of judgment experiments (DeScioli et al., 2011a, b), participants were tasked with judging if an actor was wrong in a scenario that resulted in the death of others.”

“According to the social brain hypothesis (Dunbar, 2003; Hill & Dunbar, 2003; see Dunbar, 2009 for a review), the difference in neocortex size can be explained by the differences in the complexity of social skills between primates and non-primates (Byrne & Whiten, 1988).”

“Collectively, engaging in social media can bring about improved psychological well-being and life satisfaction (Kim & Lee, 2011; Valenzuela et al., 2009) as well as reduced stress via perceived social support (Marciano et al., 2022; Nabi et al., 2013).”

“After users post content that receives more likes and comments, they experience positive emotions such as excitement, motivating more frequent posts (Stsiampkouskaya et al., 2021).”

“Collective actions such as foraging and hunting are more efficient with group living, as foragers cooperate by covering different parts of the habitat and exchanging information about food availability (Kurland & Beckerman, 1985).”

“…of organisms living in close proximity mitigate the risk of pre-dation as collective vigilance and flight distance reduce the probability of any particular individual dying to a predator (Alexander, 1974; Hamilton, 1971; Hill & Lee, 1998; Olson et al., 2015; Powell, 1974; P. W. Sherman, 1977).”

“Successes from fake news literacy programs that emphasize the authentication process, such as looking for credibility cues, lend confidence to such methods to facilitate discernment (Chan, 2022).”

“While this technological transformation offers unprecedented opportunities for connectivity and communication, it has also raised critical public concerns and prompted substantial research inquiries (e.g., Kross et al., 2021; Piazza & Bering, 2009).”

“…not only allows users to control how much information about themselves they want to reveal, but it also allows users to curate and present a particular version of themselves to the audience they prefer (Caldeira et al., 2021; Johnson & Ranzini, 2018; Márquez et al., 2023; Zheng et al., 2020).”

“Importantly, these social cues may include a range of subtle verbal and non-verbal social cues that individuals can perceive and process (see Fichten et al., 1992).”

“Media literary—media knowledge and criticism—has successfully reduced media realism, desirable media por-trayals of social actors, and harmful media effects (Jeong et al., 2012; Vahedi et al., 2018; Xie et al., 2019).”

“Results from a meta-analysis across 38 empirical studies suggest that positive and honest self-disclosure is moderately and positively associated with psychological well-being (Chu et al., 2023).”

“…of evolved psychological mechanisms and the role of evolutionary mismatch—particularly, mismatches inducing negative consequences or costs to individuals and society—may be able to lead to more informed problem-solving and public policy (Griskevicius et al., 2012; Li et al., 2018, 2020).”

“…not only allows users to control how much information about themselves they want to reveal, but it also allows users to curate and present a particular version of themselves to the audience they prefer (Caldeira et al., 2021; Johnson & Ranzini, 2018; Márquez et al., 2023; Zheng et al., 2020).”

“For instance, intelligence has been recognized as a factor underlying responses to evolutionarily novel stimuli (e.g., Kanazawa & Hellberg, 2010; Kanazawa et al., 2022).”

“Despite promoting well-being when online relationships are satisfying, social media are linked to a more negative offline social relationship, reducing well-being (Hu et al., 2017).”

“Participants who received fewer likes from a fixed number of other social media users reported feelings of higher levels of psychological distress and negative affect (Poon & Jiang, 2020).”

“Due to high social interconnectivity on social media, people are frequently exposed to the presence of ultra-high-net-worth individuals (Michaelidou et al., 2021) and their pretenders, who often flaunt their wealth on social media (Chen, 2022).”

“At best, it deprives users of the benefits of the platform with no restorative justice; at worst, users can recreate another account and continue the cycle of toxic behaviors (e.g., Kou, 2021).”

“The act of bullying, for instance, offers benefits such as access to social and material resources, deterrence from being aggressed against, and some conferences of prestige (Volk et al., 2012, 2022).”

“Social media platforms should consider a verification process—through a third party or nonprofit—to ensure that the user is identifiable and has met the necessary social and legal requirements to partake in certain activities on social media (Haidt, 2021, 2024).”

“For information about climate change to motivate immediate action, such information is best presented in simple, concrete, and affective terms (Heath & Heath, 2008).”

“Chronic pain patients who employed downward comparisons experienced lower levels of depression (Jensen & Karoly, 1992).”

“Online trolling—the act of antagonizing other online users for personal entertainment—is also facilitated by anonymity (Nitschinsk et al., 2022) .”

“…not only allows users to control how much information about themselves they want to reveal, but it also allows users to curate and present a particular version of themselves to the audience they prefer (Caldeira et al., 2021; Johnson & Ranzini, 2018; Márquez et al., 2023; Zheng et al., 2020).”

“When people are drawn to the perceived affluence of others, the perceived material gap between self and others leads to life dissatisfaction (Yang & Oliver, 2010).”

“For instance, certain night-active insects rely on moonlight to provide navigational cues, and the widespread use of artificial lighting has disrupted their previously adaptive behavioral pattern (e.g., Málnás et al., 2011).”

“Among spouses, husbands’ use of social media negatively affects marital quality (Dew & Tulane, 2015).”

“…incentives to be prioritized by the algorithm, some businesses and content creators are also known to purchase underground services that artificially inflate “Likes” and following counts (Ikram et al., 2017), further diluting the quality of “Likes” and followers as a metric of social approval.”

“Likewise, behaviors promoting social inclusions, such as prosocial behaviors, reliably reduce feelings of loneliness (Lanser & Eisenberger, 2023), downregulating the social monitoring system.”

“Extrapolating from studies on media literacy, social media literacy programs can be developed to increase awareness of the perceptions of social cues online (e.g., Schreurs & Vandenbosch, 2022).”

“Accordingly, people are concerned about their reputations, as having a bad reputation may result in stigmatization and social exclusion (Cavazza et al., 2014; Kurzban & Leary, 2001), disqualify-ing them from participating in beneficial or harm-mitigating activities.”

“…of evolved psychological mechanisms and the role of evolutionary mismatch—particularly, mismatches inducing negative consequences or costs to individuals and society—may be able to lead to more informed problem-solving and public policy (Griskevicius et al., 2012; Li et al., 2018, 2020).”

“Indeed, our findings are in line with the mismatch hypothesis (Lim and Tan, 2024), which suggests that SNSs hijack our evolved social comparisons mechanisms by offering (too) abundant opportunities for upward comparisons.”

“…addictive use (Cai et al., 2023), interference with sleep (Brautsch et al., 2023), evolutionary mismatches resulting from biased social cues (Lim and Tan, 2024), and exposure to online risks such as hate speech (Bührer et al., 2024), sexting (Mori et al., 2019), or self-harm-related…”

“Digital platforms, therefore, must design temporal adaptation mechanisms that update feedback and guidance in real time, ensuring relevance and maintaining user trust [71].”

“50 Evolved social cognition is mis-matched with digitally mediated social environments, 51 with impacts on children’s mental health.”

“…e.g. ephemeral content, short-form video feed, live streaming, disappearing messages, in fi nite scroll, algorithmic personalization, and quanti fi ed feedback, instead of viewing platforms as monolithic constructs, would facilitate more accurate, evidence-based design changes (Lim and Tan 2024).”

“Humans are an ultra-social species whose psychological architecture was shaped in environments characterized by repeated interaction, bodily co-presence, and rich streams of social information (Balconi, 2025; Barkow et al., 1992; Dunbar and Shultz, 2007; Lim and Tan, 2024).”

“…young women over their appearance and fuel not only the cosmetic industry but the cosmetic surgery industry which has seen more young patients seeking everything from laser treatments to botox and other injectables as well as more invasive procedures (Lim and Tan, 2024; Martynov and Arina, 2024).”

“Moreover, these restrictions often overlook individual differences in maturity and digital competence, which shape adolescents’ vulnerability to online risks, suggesting that a blanket ban may not represent an appropriate or effective solution for all young people [45].”

“As we argue, feedback loops can also create instability and unpredictability, making long-term system behavior difficult to control. produce maladaptive outcomes in modern settings [30, 31].”

“The situation of loneliness can negatively affect the learning process since lonely students are characterized by low motivation levels, poor concentration, and learning interest [13], [14].”