The motivating function of thinking about the future: Expectations versus fantasies.
Abstract
Two forms of thinking about the future are distinguished: expectations versus fantasies. Positive expectations (judging a desired future as likely) predicted high effort and successful performance, but the reverse was true for positive fantasies (experiencing one's thoughts and mental images about a desired future positively). Participants were graduates looking for a job (Study 1), students with a crush on a peer of the opposite sex (Study 2), undergraduates anticipating an exam (Study 3), and patients undergoing hip-replacement surgery (Study 4). Effort and performance were measured weeks or months (up to 2 years) after expectations and fantasies had been assessed. Implications for the self-regulation of effort and performance are discussed.
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Implementation intentions and mental contrasting are particularly useful.
“particularly useful are for example implementation intentions and mental contrasting (Gollwitzer & Brandstätter, 1997;Oettingen & Mayer, 2002).”
From Understanding and Treating Procrastination: A Review of a Common Self-Regulatory Failure (2014) · cites this paper as Oettingen & Mayer, 2002
Thinking only about positive future outcomes decreases goal-relevant efforts and the likelihood of goal achievement.
“Several studies by Oettingen and colleagues found that thinking only about positive future outcomes decreases goal-relevant efforts, as well as the likelihood of goal achievement (e.g., Oettingen and Mayer, 2002; Kappes H. B. et al., 2012; Oettingen et al., 2016).”
From A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Mental Contrasting With Implementation Intentions on Goal Attainment (2021) · cites this paper as Oettingen and Mayer, 2002
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“…setting have been proposed to promote more realistic performance judgments and the individual’s engagement in goal-directed behaviors (van Eerde, 2000); particularly useful are for example implementation intentions and mental contrasting (Gollwitzer & Brandstätter, 1997; Oettingen & Mayer, 2002).”
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“…and Its Effects on Goal Attainment Several studies by Oettingen and colleagues found that thinking only about positive future outcomes decreases goal-relevant efforts, as well as the likelihood of goal achievement (e.g., Oettingen and Mayer, 2002; Kappes H. B. et al., 2012; Oettingen et al., 2016).”
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- Authors
- Oettingen, G., & Mayer, D.
- Affiliations
- New York University (US)
- ORCID
- Oettingen, Gabriele
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2002-11
- Volume
- 83
- Issue
- 5
- Pages
- 1198-1212
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2156231772
- Cited by
- 547
- References
- 18
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 20 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 26 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 25 · 2020: 34 · 2019: 33 · 2018: 22 · 2017: 32 · 2016: 35 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 39 · 2013: 30 · 2012: 37
- FWCI
- 7.16
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Psychological and Temporal Perspectives Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Keywords
- expectations, fantasy, motivation, effort, performance, self-regulation, mental imagery, job search, romantic relationships, test anxiety, total hip arthroplasty
- MeSH terms
- Achievement, Adult, Fantasy, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Judgment, Love, Male, Motivation, Surveys and Questionnaires, Thinking, Self Efficacy
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