Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect.

“Self-Discrepancy Theory posits that individuals hold different self-concepts, and the discrepancies between these self-concepts can lead to distinct emotional and psychological outcomes (Higgins, 1987).”

“In fact, Higgins (1987, p. 336) speculated whether self-efficacy beliefs might moderate the effect of self-discrepancies (whether ideal or ought), a clear acknowledgment of the theoretical distinction between these constructs.”

“The discrepancy between one’s own current and desired self-representations leads to feelings of emotional distress and dissatisfaction, according to theories of self-objectification [10] and following the Self Discrepancy Theory by Higgins [11].”

“SDT would suggest that concealing is driven by an avoidance orientated prevention-focused self-regulation and that this may be instigated by perceived actual:ought discrepancies, thus leading to anxious agitation (Higgins, 1987).”

“Based on the self-consistency and selfdiscrepancy theory (Fournier et al., 2015; Higgins, 1987), having greater clarity about one’s self-concept is closely related to SWB compared to having less clarity about one’s”

“…the contested process of language teacher educators’ identity building and continuous learning, Yuan (2020) drew on self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987) and identity conflict theory (Baumeister, 1986) to shed light on how language teacher educators interpret and navigate the congruence…”

“This way, congruity between various self-images is fundamental to maintain a positive BI, avoiding psychopathological outcomes [4,5].”

“Moreover, people can experience inner discrepancies between their ideal and actual selves through goods (Higgins, 1987).”

“(2008) stated in their review, researchers have established various theoretical approaches to explain how individuals set goals and pursue them, which include but are not limited to: possible selves theory (Markus & Nurius, 1986), self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987), developmental tasks (Havinghurst, 1953), life t…”

“Drawing on the possible selves theory (Markus and Nurius 1986) and self-discre-pancy theory (Higgins 1987), Dörnyei (2009) theorises the Ideal L2 self as the self that learners imagine or want to become.”

“Higgins’ theory of self-concept regulation has also highlighted how experiences of secure attachment influence the way individuals process and organize information about themselves, affecting the coherence and stability of self-concept [29].”

“In line with the Self Discrepancy Theory by Higgins (1987), the higher the discrepancy between “whom they perceive to be” and “whom they would like to be,” the higher psychopathological outcomes and emotional issues could be observed.”

“Self-improvement motives encourage people to get closer to the aspirations they have about themselves (the ideal selfconcept) that is useful in order to increase their self-esteem (Higgins, 1987; Rosenberg, 1979).”

“…cultural contexts (Coetzee-Van Rooy 2006; Csizér and Dörnyei 2005), Dörnyei (2005, 2009) proposed a new motivational framework, L2 Motivational Self System, based on socio-educational model (Gardner 1978), possible selves theory (Markus and Nurius 1986), and self-discrepancy theory (Higgins 1987).”

“, 1999; Tversky & Kahneman, 1974), affect (Higgins, 1987), and the self (Festinger, 1954; Higgins et al.”

“The actual self is a reflection of the beliefs about one’s attributes; the ideal self represents characteristics that one desires (Higgins, 1987), and the ought self represents details that one believes one should have (Heron and Smyth, 2013).”

“Self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987) was initially developed to understand how discrepancies between different self-evaluations would lead to different emotional states, and consequently to psychologically harmful outcomes such as depression and anxiety.”

“Discrepancies between actual and ideal selves have the potential to create dejection-related and agitation-related emotions associated with the absence of positive outcomes (Higgins 1987).”

“Dörnyei (2005, 2010) developed the L2MSS, a system which is based in the field of L2 motivation but draws on psychological concepts, including potential selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986) and self-discrepancies (Higgins, 1987).”

“For example, avatars customized to represent the ‘ought self ’— how you perceive the way others believe you ought to behave (Higgins, 1987; Markus & Nurius, 1986) — have been found to motivate healthier eating behaviors than avatars customized to represent the actual self (Sah, Ratan, Sandy Tsai,…”

“These findings are consistent with Higgins’ (1987) self-discrepancy theory, which concludes that a high level of discrepancy between the self-concept and the ideal self-guide was associated with dejection-related emotions like disappointment and dissatisfaction.”

“Previous research examines potential consequences of career compromise mostly from a socio-psychological perspective: Self-discrepancy theory (Higgins 1987) and multiple discrepancies theory (Michalos 1985), for example, generally consider the realization of goals and preferences as the primary…”

“Reflecting on the theory of possible selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986) and the self-discrepancy approach (Higgins, 1987), Dörnyei introduced the new motivation model, namely L2 motivational self-system (L2MSS) with three dimensions of ideal L2 self, ought to L2 self, and language learning experience…”

“This desire to learn the other dialects also hints at a self-discrepancy e ff ect (Higgins 1987), where the gap between his knowledge of Mongolian and a desired self that understood multiple Mongolian dialects prompted him to engage in language practices that would bridge this gulf.”

“Based on self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987) and possible selves theory (Markus & Nurius, 1986), L2MSS conceptualized L2 selves into three components: ideal L2 selves, ought-to L2 selves, and L2 learning experience.”

“According to the Self-Discrepancy theory, developed by Higgins [14], individuals possess multiple self-representations, consisting of the actual self, which refers to how they perceive themselves, the ideal self, which reflects the person they ideally wish to become, and the ought self,…”

“Self-presentations are often closer to ideals than one’s actual self [21].”

“The results of these studies highlight the theoretical distinctions between ideal and ought L2 selves (Higgins, 1987).”

“A different approach to customization of one’s avatar to reflect one’s self follows from Higgins’ (1987) notion of different selves: the actual self, the ideal self, and the ought self, which may or may not overlap with each other.”

“It is maintained that when learners eagerly pursue their goal of becoming competent L2 users and realize the distance between their current self-state and desired end-state, their ideal L2 self can forge motivation to help them minimize the discrepancy (Higgins 1987).”

“Theoretically grounded in the theory of possi-bleselves(Markus&Nurius,1986)andself-discrepancytheory(Higgins,1987),L2MSSdistinguishesbetweenan ideal L2 self and an ought-to L2 self .”

“Discrepancies between the actual and ideal selves lead to discomfort in the form of dissatisfaction, and discrepancies between the actual and ought selves lead to anxiety (Higgins, 1987).”

“In the identity-based framework presented here, the conceptualization of persistence is aligned with self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987), where motivation arises from a “gap” that is perceived to exist between a current and an ideal self (the motivation-generating mechanism in Dörnyei’s, 2009,…”

“Although past work has found that shame arises from norm violations (Fessler, 2007; Higgins, 1987), the authors of those studies did not delineate between injunctive and descriptive norms in their theorizing about the antecedents of shame (e.”

“9 Based on self-discrepancy theory, 10 when there is a discrepancy between the individual’s real self and the perceived self, it leads to painful experiences and social anxiety.”

“In the field of mental health, Higgins’s cognitive theory of self-discrepancy is widely accepted for the interpretation of adverse effects by expectation discrepancy (Higgins, 1987, 1989).”

“In 1987, Higgins [26] defined three aspects of self: the actual self , the ideal self , and the ought self .”

“Following the Discrepancy Sebri et al. 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1394355 Frontiers in Psychology 02 frontiersin.org Theory by Higgins (1987), when there is a significant gap between one’s current and the desired body, it can lead to feelings of dissatisfaction and emotional distress.”

“(ii) Self-Discrepancy Theory: This theory proposes that our self-esteem is influenced by the gaps between our actual self, ideal self, and ought self (Higgins, 1987).”

“Perceived value congruence fosters feelings of belonging and reduces emotional costs that would emerge if different domains of self were discrepant (Higgins, 1987).”

“As detailed in Cho (2020) and Csizér and Dörnyei (2005) drew on two prior theories involving the self-concept: Markus and Nurius’ (1986) possible selves theory; and Higgins’ (1987) self-discrepancy theory.”

“Such identity discrepancies (Markus and Nurius, 1986; Higgins, 1987) may force teachers to re-interpret their own values and their past teaching experiences (Flores and Day, 2006) as they struggle to forge their future new teacher identities, which may give rise to immense emotional tensions…”

“Contemporary approaches and experimental studies outline that the self is a dynamic and multi-faceted existence (Higgins, 1987; Markus & Nurius, 1986), and different facets of the self can be presented depending on social settings and roles (Harter, 1990; Vonk & Ashmore, 1993).”

“The notion of a feared self is consistent with self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987), which posits that discrepancies can exist between the actual self, who we believe we are, and the ought self, who we feel we should be.”

“Distinct values in this twodimensional space have been found to relate to other variables, such as attitudes and behavior (Maio and Olson, 1995), social attitudes (Boer and Fischer, 2013), personality traits (Fischer and Boer, 2015), emotions (Higgins, 1987), and well-being (Sagiv and Schwartz, 2000, for a general ove…”

“According to self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987), alignment between the actual and ought self promotes psychological equilibrium, whereas misalignment increases vulnerability to feedback-driven distress.”

“…of “integrative” and “instrumental” motivation, and proceeded to develop the traditional theory of motivation by incorporating the conception of the “self” (Higgins, 1987; Markus and Nurius, 1986) in psychology, the introduction of the characteristics of “time,” and the “learning environment.”