What is working memory capacity?
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The mechanism responsible for the broad predictive power of WM span tasks is a domain-general executive-attention mechanism that maintains stimulus representations, action plans and goals in the face of interference.
“the mechanism responsible for the broad predictive power of WM span tasks is a domain-general, executive-attention mechanism that allows for the maintenance of stimulus representations, action plans, and goals in the face of interference”
From Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: The contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference. (2003) · cites this paper as Engle, 2001
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Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide
Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W. (2005) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196772 · Cited by 2,882 · see citing works
Self-citationWorking Memory Capacity as Executive Attention
Engle, R. W. (2002) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00160 · Cited by 2,507 · see citing works
Self-citationKane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2002) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/bf03196323 · Cited by 2,229 · see citing works
“There is significant behavioral evidence for our position, reviewed in detail elsewhere (Conway & Kane, 2001; Engle, 2001, 2002; Engle, Kane, & Tuholski, 1999).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationKane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.132.1.47 · Cited by 1,725 · see citing works
Self-citationConverging evidence that stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity.
Schmader, T., & Johns, M. (2003) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.3.440 · Cited by 1,112 · see citing works
“Cognitive psychology has identified working memory capacity as the ability to focus one’s attention on a given task while keeping taskirrelevant thoughts at bay (Engle, 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialTime constraints and resource sharing in adults' working memory spans
Barrouillet, P., Bernardin, S., & Camos, V. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/0096-3445.133.1.83 · Cited by 994 · see citing works
Working memory and second language comprehension and production: A meta-analysis
Linck, J. A., Osthus, P., Koeth, J. T., & Bunting, M. F. (2013) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-013-0565-2 · Cited by 647 · see citing works
“…account would be consistent with research in other domains , in which WM has been identified as a mechanism underlying individual differences in performance across a wide range of outcomes, such as analogical reasoning and reading comprehension (Cowan, 2005; Daneman & Merikle, 1996; Engle, 2001).”
Working memory capacity and the self-regulation of emotional expression and experience.
Schmeichel, B. J., Volokhov, R. N., & Demaree, H. A. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0013345 · Cited by 564 · see citing works
Insidious dangers of benevolent sexism: Consequences for women's performance.
Dardenne, B., Dumont, M., & Bollier, T. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.764 · Cited by 470 · see citing works
Nash Unsworth, A., Schrock, J. C., & Engle, R. W. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.30.6.1302 · Cited by 404 · see citing works
Self-citationWorking Memory and Executive Attention: A Revisit
Engle, R. W. (2018) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691617720478 · Cited by 339 · see citing works
Self-citationBenhabib, J., & Bisin, A. (2004) · Games and Economic Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.geb.2004.10.004 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
Paap, K. R. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00962 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Mere effort and stereotype threat performance effects.
Jamieson, J. P., & Harkins, S. G. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.93.4.544 · Cited by 211 · see citing works
Working memory and children’s use of retrieval to solve addition problems
Barrouillet, P., & Lépine, R. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2005.03.002 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Proactive interference and item similarity in working memory.
Bunting, M. F. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.32.2.183 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Nash Unsworth, A., & Engle, R. W. (2005) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03195310 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Self-citationBaddeley, A. (2006) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012554465-8/50003-x · Cited by 168 · see citing works
The Importance of Handwriting Speed in Adult Writing
Peverly, S. T. (2006) · Developmental Neuropsychology · doi:10.1207/s15326942dn2901_10 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
“Engle (2001, 2002; Engle, Kane, & Tuholski, 1999; Kane, Bleckley, Conway, & Engle, 2001) argued that variations in capacity are not due to differences in the size of memory stores (i.e., short-term memory [STM]); the processes traditionally associated with STM such as grouping, chunking, and…”
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Fabiani, M. (2012) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01331.x · Cited by 150 · see citing works
Garbuio, M., & Lin, N. (2021) · Journal of Product Innovation Management · doi:10.1111/jpim.12602 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
The Irrelevant Sound Phenomenon Revisited: What Role for Working Memory Capacity?
Beaman, C. P. (2004) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.30.5.1106 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
What predicts skill in lecture note taking?
Peverly, S. T., Ramaswamy, V., Brown, C., Sumowski, J. F., Alidoost, M., & Garner, J. (2007) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.99.1.167 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
FROST: A Distributed Neurocomputational Model of Working Memory Maintenance
Ashby, F. G., Ell, S. W., Valentin, V. V., & Casale, M. B. (2005) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/089892905774589271 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
SCHOLL, J. M., & Sabat, S. R. (2008) · Ageing and Society · doi:10.1017/s0144686x07006241 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
“Working memory requires the temporary storage of information and the ability to focus one’s attention on a particular task while ignoring irrelevant thoughts (Engle et al. 1999; Engle 2001).”
BackgroundTrait and State Differences in Working Memory Capacity
Ilkowska, M., & Engle, R. W. (2010) · Plenum series on human exceptionality · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-1210-7_18 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
“…State Differences in Working Memory Capacity 311 reasoning and fluid abilities (Kyllonen & Christal, 1990; Conway et al., 2002; Engle, Kane, & Tuholski, 1999; Engle, Tuholski , et al., 1999; for review see also Orzechowski, this volume), and various other skills (Engle, 2001; Engle & Kane, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationSleep waking and neurobehavioural performance
Rogers, N. L. (2003) · Frontiers in bioscience · doi:10.2741/1174 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Imbo, I., & Vandierendonck, A. (2007) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-007-0112-8 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
García-Madruga, J. A., de Juan, M. R. E., Gil, L., Veiga, I. G., Chaves, J. Ó. V., Villar, I. O., Felipe, A. C., Rodríguez‐Fernández, R., Melero, M. A., & de Blas, G. D. (2013) · Reading Research Quarterly · doi:10.1002/rrq.44 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“The second critical paper is that of Shipstead, Redick, and Engle (2012). It undertakes a more theoretically based analysis and review of studies that focus on the training of WM.”
BackgroundRetest effects in working memory capacity tests: A meta-analysis
Scharfen, J., Jansen, K., & Holling, H. (2018) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-018-1461-6 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Adolescent sleep and working memory performance
GRADISAR, M., TERRILL, G., JOHNSTON, A., & DOUGLAS, P. (2008) · Sleep and Biological Rhythms · doi:10.1111/j.1479-8425.2008.00353.x · Cited by 100 · see citing works
A Multilevel Investigation of Individual- and Unit-Level Human Capital Complementarities
Crocker, A., & Eckardt, R. (2013) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206313511862 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“Working memory capacity refers to the degree to which an individual can focus his or her cognitive resources on the task at hand (Engle, 2001).”
BackgroundBoth handwriting speed and selective attention are important to lecture note-taking
Peverly, S. T., Garner, J., & Vekaria, P. C. (2013) · Reading and Writing · doi:10.1007/s11145-013-9431-x · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Improving working memory efficiency by reframing metacognitive interpretation of task difficulty.
Autin, F., & Croizet, J. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0027478 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Contextual knowledge reduces demands on working memory during reading
Miller, L. M. S., Cohen, J. A., & Wingfield, A. (2006) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03193277 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Each of the above reading operations is thought to place some demand on WM (e.g., Kintsch, 1994), which is typically defined as a limited-capacity system that both stores and manipulates information (e.g., Baddeley & Hitch, 1974; Daneman & Carpenter, 1980; Engle, 2001).”
BackgroundA balancing act of the brain: activations and deactivations driven by cognitive load
Arsalidou, M., Pascual‐Leone, J., Johnson, J., Morris, D. M., & Taylor, M. J. (2013) · Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1002/brb3.128 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Further, behavioral work suggests that irrelevant cues in a task improve the assessment of working memory (Pascual-Leone and Baillargeon 1994; Engle 2001; Engle and Kane 2004; Arsalidou et al. 2010).”
BackgroundThe selective impact of chocolate craving on visuospatial working memory
Tiggemann, M., Kemps, E., & Parnell, J. (2010) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2010.03.010 · Cited by 83 · see citing works
Navigational Aids and Spatial Memory Impairment: The Role of Divided Attention
Gardony, A. L., Brunyé, T. T., & Taylor, H. A. (2015) · Spatial Cognition & Computation · doi:10.1080/13875868.2015.1059432 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
“Rather, it reflects a greater ability to control attention and maintain information in the face of interference (Rosen & Engle, 1998; Engle et al., 1999a;Engle et al., 1999b;Kane&Engle, 2000;Engle, 2001;Kane& Engle, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialIndividual differences in the fan effect and working memory capacity
Bunting, M. F., Conway, A. R. A., & Heitz, R. P. (2004) · Journal of Memory and Language · doi:10.1016/j.jml.2004.07.007 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Peverly, S. T., Vekaria, P. C., Reddington, L. A., Sumowski, J. F., Johnson, K. R., & Ramsay, C. M. (2012) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.2881 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Engle, R. W. (2001). What is working memory capacity? In H.”
BackgroundFood cravings consume limited cognitive resources.
Kemps, E., Tiggemann, M., & Grigg, M. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/a0012736 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
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Performance-approach goals deplete working memory and impair cognitive performance.
Crouzevialle, M., & Butera, F. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · doi:10.1037/a0029632 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
WAIS-IV subtest covariance structure: Conceptual and statistical considerations.
Ward, L. C., Bergman, M. A., & Hebert, K. R. (2011) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0025614 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Individual Differences in Second Language Sentence Processing
Roberts, L. (2012) · Language Learning · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9922.2012.00711.x · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Tulsky, D. S., Saklofske, D. H., & Zhu, J. (2003) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012703570-3/50006-7 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Testing the mere effort account of the evaluation-performance relationship.
McFall, S. R., Jamieson, J. P., & Harkins, S. G. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012878 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Working memory training improves visual short-term memory capacity
Schwarb, H., Nail, J., & Schumacher, E. H. (2016) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-015-0648-y · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Although most studies estimate that mean WM capacity is approximately four items (c.f., Cowan, 2001), considerable individual differences are reported in the literature and these differences are often predictive of performance on a wide variety of tasks (cf. Engle, 2001).”
Injoque‐Ricle, I., Barreyro, J. P., Formoso, J., & Jaichenco, V. I. (2015) · Advances in Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.5709/acp-0171-1 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Working memory and second language learning
Wen, Z. E. (2012) · International Journal of Applied Linguistics · doi:10.1111/j.1473-4192.2011.00290.x · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Karpicke, J. D., & Pisoni, D. B. (2004) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03196873 · Cited by 52 · see citing works
OPPORTUNITY RECOGNITION: A COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE.
Baron, R. A. (2004) · Academy of Management Proceedings · doi:10.5465/ambpp.2004.13862818 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Peltz, C. B., Gratton, G., & Fabiani, M. (2011) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00190 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“They went on to show that OSPAN scores predict individual differences in a variety of tasks, ranging from vocabulary learning to contract bridge playing (Engle, 2001).”
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Working memory in the oldest-old: evidence from output serial position curves
Elliott, E. M., Cherry, K. E., Brown, J. S., et al. (2011) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/s13421-011-0119-7 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
WORKING MEMORY AND L2 ORAL FLUENCY
Mizera, G. (2006) · D-Scholarship@Pitt (University of Pittsburgh) · Cited by 44 · see citing works
A Cognitive Experimental Approach to Understanding and Reducing Food Cravings
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Working Memory Capacity and Self‐Regulation
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The Role of Working Memory in Implicit and Explicit Language Learning
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Putting Things into Perspective
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“The working memory capacity according to Engle (2001), refers to mechanisms that account for the co variation between a variety of working memory tasks, on the one hand.”
BackgroundVarol, B., & Erçetin, G. (2019) · Computer Assisted Language Learning · doi:10.1080/09588221.2019.1643738 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
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Disorders of Attention and Impulse Regulation
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Dual-Dimension Naming Speed and Language-Dominance Ratings by Bilingual Hispanic Adults
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Simulating social dilemmas: Promoting cooperative behavior through imagined group discussion.
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Arousal, Working Memory Capacity, and Sexual Decision-Making in Men
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“Individualsdiffer in theirworkingmemorycapacity (WMC),which reflects the maximum information load under which efficient executivefunctioningcanproceed(Baddeley,2000;Engle,2001, 2002).”
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Time flies faster if a person has a high working-memory capacity
Woehrle, J. L., & Magliano, J. P. (2012) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2011.12.006 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“…the passage of time while engaging in a cognitive task requires attentional control, which is strongly correlated with working-memory capacity (Broadway & Engle, 2011; Conway, Cowan, & Bunting, 2001; Engle, 2001, 2002; Kane, Bleckley, Conway, & Engle, 2001; Kane et al., 2007; Kane & Engle, 2003).”
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Investigating the effect of proactive interference control training on intrusive memories
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“Performance on these tasks depends on one’s ability to sustain goal-relevant information processing when simultaneously presented with alternative goals or distractions (Engle, 2001).”
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Economic Models of Procrastination
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Lecture note-taking in postsecondary students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder
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Working memory capacity estimates moderate value learning for outcome-irrelevant features
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“Because only a limited amount of information can be simultaneously kept active in working memory (Cowan, 2001, 2010; Engle, 2001; Miller, 1956), terminating rehearsal of some information frees up limited cognitive resources for rehearsal of other information or other mental activities.”
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The Effect of Strategy on Problem Solving: An fMRI Study
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- Authors
- Engle, R. W.
- Affiliations
- Georgia Institute of Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Engle, Randall W.
- ORCID
- Engle, Randall W.
- Venue
- The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder.
- Publisher
- American Psychological Association
- Published
- 2004-10-27
- Pages
- 297-314
- OpenAlex
- W2497320563
- Cited by
- 174
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 9 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 6 · 2020: 5 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 7 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 6 · 2014: 5 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 14
- FWCI
- 32.69
- Type
- book chapter
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- American Psychological Association eBooks (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- working memory capacity, working memory, cognitive ability, individual differences
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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