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Loneliness predicts reduced physical activity: Cross-sectional & longitudinal analyses.
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE: To determine cross-sectional and prospective associations between loneliness and physical activity, and to evaluate the roles of social control and emotion regulation as mediators of these associations. DESIGN: A population-based sample of 229 White, Black, and Hispanic men and women, age 50 to 68 years at study onset, were tested annually for each of 3 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Physical activity probability, and changes in physical activity probability over a 3-year period. RESULTS: Replicating and extending prior cross-sectional research, loneliness was associated with a significantly reduced odds of physical activity (OR = 0.65 per SD of loneliness) net of sociodemographic variables (age, gender, ethnicity, education, income), psychosocial variables (depressive symptoms, perceived stress, hostility, social support), and self-rated health. This association was mediated by hedonic emotion regulation, but not by social control as indexed by measures of social network size, marital status, contact with close ties, group membership, or religious group affiliation. Longitudinal analyses revealed that loneliness predicted diminished odds of physical activity in the next two years (OR = 0.61), and greater likelihood of transitioning from physical activity to inactivity (OR = 1.58). CONCLUSION: Loneliness among middle and older age adults is an independent risk factor for physical inactivity and increases the likelihood that physical activity will be discontinued over time.
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“Loneliness predicts reduced physical activity (Hawkley et al., 2009) and increased blood pressure in older adults (Hawkley et al., 2009, 2006).”
From Maladaptive autonomic regulation in PTSD accelerates physiological aging (2015) · cites this paper as Hawkley et al., 2009
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“diminished executive control [30, 31]”
From Loneliness matters: a theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms (2010) · cites this paper as [31]
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“Both loneliness and social isolation are associated with poorer health behaviors including smoking, physical inactivity, and poorer sleep (Cacioppo et al., 2002;Hawkley, Thisted, & Cacioppo, 2009;Theeke, 2010).”
From Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review (2015) · cites this paper as Hawkley, Thisted, & Cacioppo, 2009
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“Compromised regulation of emotion in lonely individuals explained their diminished likelihood of performing any physical activity, and loneliness also predicted a decrease in physical activity over time [31].”
From Loneliness matters: a theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms (2010) · cites this paper as [31]
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“In middle-aged and older adults, greater loneliness was associated with less effort applied to the maintenance and optimization of positive emotions [31].”
From Loneliness matters: a theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms (2010) · cites this paper as [31]
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“studies of isolation and health behaviors indicate that social control does not explain many of the effects of isolation in humans.10,11”
From Social isolation (2011) · cites this paper as [10]
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“Having opportunities to socially connect is essential to reduce isolation; however, it is essential to make these opportunities meaningful to reduce feelings of loneliness and sustain engagement in physical activity (Hawkley et al., 2009).”
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“Email: cecilia.ma@polyu.edu.hk active (Hawkley et al., 2009; Lasgaard et al., 2011; Stickley et al., 2013, 2014) Although psychological constructs have been associated with a variety of unhealthy behaviors, most of the studies have adopted a variable-centered approach when testing such…”
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“Hence, lonely individuals, in some studies, were found to have difficulties regulating their emotions (Hawkley et al., 2009; Southward et al., 2014).”
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“Previous studies have indicated that lack of social network is associated with low physical activity and function [7, 8, 23], and our results are consistent with this finding.”
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“For instance, loneliness has been associated with lower levels of physical activity (Hawkley et al., 2009), increased risk for cardiovascular disease (Valtorta et al., 2016), higher hemoglobin A1c levels (O’luanaigh et al., 2012), diminished sleep quality (Cacioppo & Cacioppo, 2018b; Hawkley &…”
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“It may also be associated with the decrease in immunity [37] and undertaking risky behaviors [37].”
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“, 2011), less physical activity (Hawkley et al., 2009), and worse physical functioning (Luo et al.”
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“Lonely individuals showed reduced tendency to use positive thinking to alleviate their negative emotions (Hawkley et al. 2009).”
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“The association between WT use and being in a relationship might be due to those in a relationship having a higher motivation to take care of one’s own health and well-being since loneliness has previously been shown to strongly associate with decreased physical activity [36].”
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Laslo‐Roth, R., George‐Levi, S., & Ben-Yaakov, L. (2022) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/02654075221113031 · Cited by 22
“For example, Hawkley et al. (2009) found that lonely adults reported themselves to be less likely than non-lonely adults to express, enjoy, and enhance positive feelings or to use pleasant thoughts and memories to alleviate a bad mood.”
BackgroundDaily Social Exchanges and Affect in Middle and Later Adulthood: The Impact of Loneliness and Age
Russell, A., Bergeman, C. S., & Scott, S. (2012) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/ag.74.4.c · Cited by 22
Chou, K., Cacioppo, J. T., Meena Kumari, B., & Song, Y. (2013) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2012.11.002 · Cited by 22
Self-citationEmerging perspectives in social neuroscience and neuroeconomics of aging
Nielsen, L., & Mather, M. (2011) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsr019 · Cited by 22
“Work with the CHASRS sample has focused extensively on loneliness as a risk factor for poor health outcomes in aging (Hawkley et al., 2006, 2009; Cacioppo et al., 2010).”
MethodPsychosocial Factors Associated With Physical Activity in Older Adults
Greaney, M. L., Lees, F. D., Blissmer, B. J., Riebe, D. A., & Clark, P. G. (2015) · Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics · doi:10.1891/0198-8794.36.273 · Cited by 22
Yang, Y., Xu, Y., Chen, W.-C., Zhu, J.-H., Lü, J., & Zhong, B. (2017) · Oncotarget · doi:10.18632/oncotarget.19565 · Cited by 22
Daimer, S., Mihatsch, L. L., Neufeld, S. A., Murray, G. K., & Knolle, F. (2022) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.75893 · Cited by 21
“This contradicts the results of other studies that report that loneliness decreases the likelihood of physical activity (Creese et al., 2021; Hawkley et al., 2009).”
ResultLi, M., Xu, H., & Wang, W. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00688 · Cited by 21
“Moreover, the lack of social contact is closely related to loneliness, a psychological stress that can cause a variety of behavioral and physiological changes (38, 39).”
BackgroundLoneliness and emotion regulation: Implications of having social anxiety disorder
Eres, R., Lim, M. H., Lanham, S., Jillard, C., & Bates, G. W. (2020) · Australian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajpy.12296 · Cited by 22
Emotion recognition impairments and social well-being following right-hemisphere stroke
O’Connell, K., Marsh, A. A., Edwards, D. F., Dromerick, A. W., & Seydell‐Greenwald, A. (2021) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602011.2021.1888756 · Cited by 21
“In the general population, poor social support and isolation have been previously linked to worse health behaviours that increase stroke risk (e.g., reduced physical activity and increased nicotine consumption (Hawkley et al., 2006, 2009; House et al., 1988)).”
BackgroundMarshall-Fabien, G. L., & Miller, D. B. (2014) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/0095798414562067 · Cited by 21
Morris, Z. A. (2019) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/0898264319836549 · Cited by 24
The COVID-19 pandemic and weight management: Effective behaviors and pandemic-specific risk factors
Borgatti, A. C., Schneider-Worthington, C. R., Stager, L., Krantz, O., Davis, A., Blevins, M., Howell, C., & Dutton, G. (2021) · Obesity Research and Clinical Practice · doi:10.1016/j.orcp.2021.06.007 · Cited by 19
McMullan, I., Bunting, B. P., Burns, A., Smith, L., Cunningham, C., O’Sullivan, R., Blackburn, N. E., Wilson, J. J., & Tully, M. A. (2020) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.2020-0159 · Cited by 22
Consequences of COVID19-pandemic lockdown on Italian occupational physicians’ psychosocial health
Sio, S. D., Torre, G. L., Buomprisco, G., Lapteva, E., Perri, R., Corbosiero, P., Ferraro, P., Giovannetti, A., Greco, E., & Cedrone, F. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0243194 · Cited by 20
The Long-Term Public Health Impact of Social Distancing on Brain Health: Topical Review
Kumar, A., & Salinas, J. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18147307 · Cited by 24
“Inversely, social isolation has been associated with worse executive functioning [57,58] and memory loss [59,60].”
BackgroundSocial media usage and loneliness among Princess Nourah University medical students
Bakry, H., Almater, A. A., Alslami, D. M., Ajaj, H. S., Alsowayan, R. A., Almutairi, A. F., & Almoayad, F. A. (2022) · Middle East Current Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s43045-022-00217-w · Cited by 20
“The feeling of loneliness is particularly high among university students despite the presence of many colleagues [7].”
BackgroundTimpano, K. R., Çek, D., Rubenstein, L. M., Murphy, D. L., & Schmidt, N. B. (2014) · Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy · doi:10.1891/0889-8391.28.4.264 · Cited by 22
Drageset, J., & Haugan, G. (2021) · Geriatric Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.gerinurse.2021.04.001 · Cited by 20
Fan, K., Seah, B., Lu, Z., Wang, T., & Zhou, Y. (2024) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2024.2358079 · Cited by 20
“Additionally, lone-liness is associated with unhealthy behaviors, which can negatively affect cognitive outcomes (Hawkley & Cacioppo, 2010; Hawkley et al., 2009).”
Brady, S. S., Berry, A. K., Camenga, D. R., Fitzgerald, C. M., Gahagan, S., Hardacker, C. T., Harlow, B. L., Hebert‐Beirne, J., LaCoursiere, D. Y., Lewis, J. B., et al. (2020) · Neurourology and Urodynamics · doi:10.1002/nau.24325 · Cited by 19
Hugs, Bible Study, and Speakeasies: Designing for Older Adults’ Multimodal Connectedness
Richards, O. K., Marcu, G. M., & Brewer, R. N. (2021) · Designing Interactive Systems Conference · doi:10.1145/3461778.3462075 · Cited by 22
“As prior work has established a negative relationship between social isolation and health [45, 66], restrictions on older adults’ in-person social encounters could increase health risks.”
BackgroundAlroomi, A. S., & Mohamed, S. (2021) · Safety Science · doi:10.1016/j.ssci.2021.105639 · Cited by 21
The Longevity Protein Klotho: A Promising Tool to Monitor Lifestyle Improvements
Paquette, J., Rhéaume, C., Cordeau, P., Moulin, J.-A., Audet‐Walsh, É., Blanchette, V., Drouin‐Chartier, J., Toi, A. K., & Tremblay, A. (2023) · Metabolites · doi:10.3390/metabo13111157 · Cited by 21
“Loneliness manifests itself when one’s social relationships are perceived as being less satisfying than what is desired [93].”
BackgroundCohen, A. S., Beck, M. R., Najolia, G. M., & Brown, L. A. (2011) · Schizophrenia Research · doi:10.1016/j.schres.2011.02.004 · Cited by 19
“The theoretical reason for this is unclear, perhaps involving increased social support (Hawkley et al., 2009) or younger age (Keil and Freund, 2009) in the college students.”
BackgroundShi, L., Zhang, D. “., van Meijgaard, J., MacLeod, K. E., & Fielding, J. E. (2015) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2014.302541 · Cited by 24
Du, H., Li, X., Chi, P., Zhao, S., & Zhao, J. (2018) · Applied Psychology Health and Well-Being · doi:10.1111/aphw.12139 · Cited by 25
Loneliness is linked to specific subregional alterations in hippocampus-default network covariation
Zajner, C., Spreng, R. N., & Bzdok, D. (2021) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00339.2021 · Cited by 18
Kim, K., Jung, S. J., Baek, J., Yim, H. W., Jeong, H., Kim, D. J., Park, S., Youm, Y., & Kim, H. C. (2020) · BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care · doi:10.1136/bmjdrc-2020-001272 · Cited by 18
Lippke, S., Keller, F. M., Derksen, C., Kötting, L., Ratz, T., & Fleig, L. (2021) · Prävention und Gesundheitsförderung · doi:10.1007/s11553-021-00837-w · Cited by 18
Smith, L., Sherratt, F., Barnett, Y., Cao, C., Tully, M. A., Koyanagi, A., Jacob, L., Soysal, P., Sánchez, G. F. L., Shin, J. I., et al. (2021) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2021.01.018 · Cited by 19
Franco-O´Byrne, D., González-Gómez, R., Sepúlveda, J. P. M., Vergara, M., Ibáñez, A. M., & Huepe, D. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1096178 · Cited by 18
“Second, it is well known that loneliness is associated with low self-esteem and negative views about others and the world (Cacioppo, 2009; Hawkley et al., 2009).”
Backgroundde Koning, J. L., Richards, S. H., & Stathi, A. (2019) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.2019-0027 · Cited by 19
Burns, A., Leavey, G., & O’Sullivan, R. (2021) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2021.620264 · Cited by 17
Metadata
- Authors
- Hawkley, L. C., Thisted, R. A., & Cacioppo, J. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Venue
- Health Psychology
- Published
- 2009-05
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 354-363
- ISSN
- 0278-6133 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-7810
- PMC
- PMC2791498
- OpenAlex
- W2148269494
- Cited by
- 608
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 59 · 2021: 66 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 17.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Health Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (PO1 AG18911)
- Templeton Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Keywords
- loneliness, physical activity, physical inactivity, social control, emotion regulation, mediation, middle-aged and older adults, physical activity decline, social networks, marital status
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Attitude to Health, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depression, Female, Hostility, Humans, Loneliness, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Motor Activity, Personality Inventory, Prospective Studies, Social Identification, Socioeconomic Factors
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