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Loneliness predicts reduced physical activity: Cross-sectional & longitudinal analyses.
Open accessAbstract
OBJECTIVE: To determine cross-sectional and prospective associations between loneliness and physical activity, and to evaluate the roles of social control and emotion regulation as mediators of these associations. DESIGN: A population-based sample of 229 White, Black, and Hispanic men and women, age 50 to 68 years at study onset, were tested annually for each of 3 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Physical activity probability, and changes in physical activity probability over a 3-year period. RESULTS: Replicating and extending prior cross-sectional research, loneliness was associated with a significantly reduced odds of physical activity (OR = 0.65 per SD of loneliness) net of sociodemographic variables (age, gender, ethnicity, education, income), psychosocial variables (depressive symptoms, perceived stress, hostility, social support), and self-rated health. This association was mediated by hedonic emotion regulation, but not by social control as indexed by measures of social network size, marital status, contact with close ties, group membership, or religious group affiliation. Longitudinal analyses revealed that loneliness predicted diminished odds of physical activity in the next two years (OR = 0.61), and greater likelihood of transitioning from physical activity to inactivity (OR = 1.58). CONCLUSION: Loneliness among middle and older age adults is an independent risk factor for physical inactivity and increases the likelihood that physical activity will be discontinued over time.
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“Loneliness predicts reduced physical activity (Hawkley et al., 2009) and increased blood pressure in older adults (Hawkley et al., 2009, 2006).”
From Maladaptive autonomic regulation in PTSD accelerates physiological aging (2015) · cites this paper as Hawkley et al., 2009
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“diminished executive control [30, 31]”
From Loneliness matters: a theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms (2010) · cites this paper as [31]
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“Both loneliness and social isolation are associated with poorer health behaviors including smoking, physical inactivity, and poorer sleep (Cacioppo et al., 2002;Hawkley, Thisted, & Cacioppo, 2009;Theeke, 2010).”
From Loneliness and Social Isolation as Risk Factors for Mortality: A Meta-Analytic Review (2015) · cites this paper as Hawkley, Thisted, & Cacioppo, 2009
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“Compromised regulation of emotion in lonely individuals explained their diminished likelihood of performing any physical activity, and loneliness also predicted a decrease in physical activity over time [31].”
From Loneliness matters: a theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms (2010) · cites this paper as [31]
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“In middle-aged and older adults, greater loneliness was associated with less effort applied to the maintenance and optimization of positive emotions [31].”
From Loneliness matters: a theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms (2010) · cites this paper as [31]
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“studies of isolation and health behaviors indicate that social control does not explain many of the effects of isolation in humans.10,11”
From Social isolation (2011) · cites this paper as [10]
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“suggest that loneliness among middle-aged and older adults is an independent risk factor for physical inactivity and increases the likelihood of physical inactivity cessation over time [51].”
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“Previous research has consistently suggested that negative affect is a significant contributor to the feeling of loneliness (Marcus and Askari, 1999), and that lonelier individuals usually have poor emotion regulation (Hawkley et al., 2009).”
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Leibow, M. S., Lee, J. W., & Morton, K. R. (2020) · American Journal of Health Promotion · doi:10.1177/0890117120930392 · Cited by 11
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“While one longitudinal study found that loneliness predicts a decreased likelihood of performing physical activities and a greater likelihood of transitioning from being physically active to inactive over time, the study sample was small.(22) Another unexamined area is loneliness’ influence on physical activity at dif…”
BackgroundVasan, S., Lambert, É., Eikelis, N., & Lim, M. H. (2022) · Health & Social Care in the Community · doi:10.1111/hsc.13948 · Cited by 12
“…and poor physical health indicators (e.g., increased cardiovascular issues, reduced physical activity, sleeping difficulties; Cacioppo, Hawkley, Berntson, et al., 2002; Cacioppo, Hawkley, Crawford, et al., 2002; Hawkley et al., 2006; Hawkley et al., 2009; Hawkley et al., 2010; Kurina et al., 2011).”
BackgroundNeto, R. D. C. A. (2015) · Psico · doi:10.15448/1980-8623.2015.3.18265 · Cited by 13
Ahola, A. J., Suojanen, L.-U., Joki, A., & Pietiläinen, K. H. (2024) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2024.108032 · Cited by 11
Social support, loneliness, eating, and activity among parent–adolescent dyads
Welch, J. D., Ellis, E. M., Green, P. A., & Ferrer, R. A. (2019) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-019-00041-4 · Cited by 11
Subjective Well-being, Personality, and Loneliness as Correlates of Saudade: A Preliminary Study
Neto, F. F. M., & Mullet, É. (2020) · Journal of Relationships Research · doi:10.1017/jrr.2020.1 · Cited by 10
Yazawa, A., Inoue, Y., Yamamoto, T., Watanabe, C., Tu, R., & Kawachi, I. I. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0264086 · Cited by 10
“Social threat can cause diminished self-regulation, so that people with loneliness tend to have worse health behaviors such as more alcohol consumption and less physical activity [31, 32].”
BackgroundKim, H., O'Sullivan, D. M., & Chung, S. H. (2022) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/38133 · Cited by 16
Chang, H., Ruan, W., Chen, Y., Cai, L., & Liu, X. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1196092 · Cited by 10
Sarhaddi, F., Azimi, I., Niela‐Vilén, H., Axelin, A., Liljeberg, P., & Rahmani, A. M. (2023) · JMIR Formative Research · doi:10.2196/47950 · Cited by 18
Social Isolation and Worsening Health Behaviors Among Older Adults During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Choi, K. W., Waite, L. J., Finch, L. E., & Kotwal, A. (2023) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbad122 · Cited by 12
Leis, K. S., Reeder, B. A., Chad, K. E., Spink, K. S., Fisher, K. L., & Bruner, B. (2010) · Women & Health · doi:10.1080/03630242.2010.506150 · Cited by 10
“Living arrangement ( Satariano, Haight, & Tager, 2002 ), level of physical activity of one's spouse ( Pettee et al, 2006 ), as well as loneliness ( Hawkley, Thisted, & Cacioppo, 2009 ) have all been found to be independently associated with exercise in older adults.”
BackgroundChai, X., & Margolis, R. (2020) · Canadian Studies in Population · doi:10.1007/s42650-020-00017-9 · Cited by 11
Manera, K., Stamatakis, E., Huang, B., Owen, K., Phongsavan, P., & Smith, B. J. (2022) · International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity · doi:10.1186/s12966-022-01372-3 · Cited by 10
“Cross-sectional and longitudinal analyses have shown that lonely individuals are less likely to be physically active, and more likely to discontinue physical activity over time [15].”
BackgroundPath analysis of social engagement, loneliness and cognitive function among Chinese older adults
Mai, S., Cai, J., Zheng, W., & Li, L. (2022) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2022.2151635 · Cited by 9
“The mediating role of loneliness was tested by Baron and Kenny’s Approach (Baron & Kenny, 1986; Wen et al., 2004) and bootstrapping technique (Hayes, 2009).”
MethodLoneliness predicts decreased physical activity in widowed but not married or unmarried individuals
Pollak, C., Verghese, J., & Blumen, H. M. (2024) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2024.1295128 · Cited by 9
“Our findings are consistent with previous studies that showed loneliness predicted decreased physical activity cross-sectionally and longitudinally (7–9 , 20).”
BackgroundResultThe impact of loneliness on mental and physical health outcomes: An umbrella review
Molinera, V. G., Khan, K. S., Núñez‐Núñez, M., & Kouiti, M. (2024) · Medicina de Familia SEMERGEN · doi:10.1016/j.semerg.2024.102261 · Cited by 10
Smith, S., Lally, P. J., Steptoe, A., Chavez‐Ugalde, Y., Beeken, R. J., & Fisher, A. (2024) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-024-17797-3 · Cited by 11
“Although relationships are likely to be bidirectional, four prospective studies have found that people with higher levels of loneliness at baseline were less likely to be physically active at follow-up [28–31].”
BackgroundAcculturation, Adaptation and Loneliness among Brazilian Migrants Living in Portugal
Neto, J., Oliveira, E. N., & Neto, F. F. M. (2017) · InTech eBooks · doi:10.5772/65693 · Cited by 13
“The identification of the factors, which contribute to loneliness, is relevant for diverse motives, such as its relationship with low physical activity [22], poor academic competence and perfor‐ mance [23], unmet intimacy needs [24], health outcomes such as increment in hypertension [25], sleep disturbance [26] and me…”
BackgroundPerceived Social Isolation within Personal and Evolutionary Timescales
Hawkley, L. C., Cacioppo, J. T., & Correll, J. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195398700.013.0017 · Cited by 10
Self-citationTucker, J. R., Wade, N. G., Abraham, W. T., Bitman, R. L., Cornish, M. A., & Post, B. C. (2019) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000403 · Cited by 10
Díaz-Rodríguez, M., Carretero-Bravo, J., Pérez-Muñoz, C., & Deudero-Sánchez, M. (2022) · International Journal of Public Health · doi:10.3389/ijph.2022.1604088 · Cited by 9
Loneliness and preferences for palatable foods: The role of coping
Sirois, F. M., & Biskas, M. (2023) · Current Research in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.crbeha.2023.100119 · Cited by 12
Maier, K. J., & James, A. E. (2013) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2013.826170 · Cited by 9
Reed, J., Clarke, C. L., & Macfarlane, A. (2011) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 9
Tubić, T., Modrić, T., Sekulić, D., Bianco, A., Radjo, I., & Drid, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1063714 · Cited by 12
Davis, A., Cohen, E. E. A., & Nettle, D. (2025) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2025.02.037 · Cited by 12
Choi, K. W., Kim, H. H., Basu, A., Kwong, A. S. F., Hernández–Dı́az, S., Wyszynski, D. F., & Koenen, K. C. (2021) · Journal of Affective Disorders Reports · doi:10.1016/j.jadr.2021.100288 · Cited by 8
“Loneliness was evaluated using the UCLA Three-Item Loneliness Scale (UCLA-3) (Hughes et al., 2004), which consisted of three questions assessing feelings of loneliness specifically since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic for this survey, which were each rated as 1 (hardly ever), 2 (some of the time), or 3 (often).”
Senior volunteers: addressing loneliness in times of COVID-19
Torres, Z., Martínez‐Gregorio, S., & Oliver, A. (2023) · European Journal of Ageing · doi:10.1007/s10433-023-00788-5 · Cited by 8
“It is important to note that loneliness, the perceived subjective experience of social isolation (Campagne 2019; Hawkley et al. 2009) is different from objective social isolation, which is usually defined as a measure of network size or the objective absence of interactions with family and friends…”
BackgroundFamily and Partner Facing a Chronic Disease: Chronic Fatigue Syndrome
Blázquez, A., & Alegre, J. (2012) · American Journal of Family Therapy · doi:10.1080/01926187.2011.642651 · Cited by 8
Feeling Isolated and Lonely During Covid-19 Lockdown
(2020) · Archives of Health Science · doi:10.31829/2641-7456/ahs2020-4(1)-121 · Cited by 8
The plight of loneliness in Parkinson's disease: New opportunities
González, D. A., Tosin, M. H. D. S., & Goetz, C. G. (2022) · Parkinsonism & Related Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.parkreldis.2022.10.029 · Cited by 8
Chatfield, S., Gamble, A., & Hallam, J. S. (2016) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/1557988316643316 · Cited by 8
Digital Game Addiction and Children
Ersoy, M., & Şahbaz, A. (2023) · Advances in human and social aspects of technology book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-8397-8.ch019 · Cited by 7
Wenli, S., Zhou, Y., Chong, Z. Y., & Xu, W. (2023) · Psychology Health & Medicine · doi:10.1080/13548506.2023.2260965 · Cited by 8
Lee, G. (2024) · Aging & Mental Health · doi:10.1080/13607863.2024.2439537 · Cited by 8
“Lonely individuals are less likely to be engaged in social or physical activities (Hawkley et al., 2009), which may lead to functional limitations due to reduced physical activity levels.”
An Intentionally Designed Walking Program for Seniors Results in Enhanced Community Connection
Walters, K., Marshall, M., Wilkinson, A. N., & Natividad, M. D. (2021) · Journal of Aging and Physical Activity · doi:10.1123/japa.2020-0257 · Cited by 7
Metadata
- Authors
- Hawkley, L. C., Thisted, R. A., & Cacioppo, J. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Chicago (US)
- Venue
- Health Psychology
- Published
- 2009-05
- Volume
- 28
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 354-363
- ISSN
- 0278-6133 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-7810
- PMC
- PMC2791498
- OpenAlex
- W2148269494
- Cited by
- 608
- References
- 58
- Citations by year
- 2026: 23 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 48 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 59 · 2021: 66 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 38 · 2018: 33 · 2017: 28 · 2016: 30 · 2015: 29 · 2014: 28 · 2013: 27 · 2012: 22
- FWCI
- 17.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Health Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute on Aging (PO1 AG18911)
- Templeton Foundation
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health › Physical Activity and Health
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › COVID-19 and Mental Health
- Keywords
- loneliness, physical activity, physical inactivity, social control, emotion regulation, mediation, middle-aged and older adults, physical activity decline, social networks, marital status
- MeSH terms
- Aged, Attitude to Health, Cross-Sectional Studies, Depression, Female, Hostility, Humans, Loneliness, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Motor Activity, Personality Inventory, Prospective Studies, Social Identification, Socioeconomic Factors
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