Sex differences in academic achievement are not related to political, economic, or social equality
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Two studies showed some effects in the opposite direction, that is, that sex differences are larger in countries with higher living conditions (Stoet & Geary, 2013, 2015).
“Two studies showed some effects in the opposite direction, that is, that sex differences are larger in countries with higher living conditions (Stoet & Geary, 2013, 2015).”
From A Systematic Review and New Analyses of the Gender-Equality Paradox (2025) · cites this paper as Stoet & Geary, 2015
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InfluentialThe Relation Between Gender Egalitarian Values and Gender Differences in Academic Achievement
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Dekhtyar, S., Weber, D., Helgertz, J., & Herlitz, A. (2018) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2017.11.007 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“…these cognitive sex differences are often modest in magnitude (Hyde, 2016), they have been consistently reported throughout the lifespan and across geographical regions (Else-Quest, Hyde, & Linn, 2010; Lippa, Collaer, & Peters, 2010; Stoet & Geary, 2013; Stoet & Geary, 2015; Weber et al., 2014).”
Balducci, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1105234 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
“Additionally, the results are sensitive to the inclusion of Scandinavian and gender-segregated, Muslim countries as well as gender-equal nations in which boys considerably underperform girls (Fryer and Levitt, 2010; Kane and Mertz, 2012; Stoet and Geary, 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialKolomeichuk, S. N., Randler, C., Shabalina, I., Fradkova, L., & Borisenkov, M. F. (2016) · Biological Rhythm Research · doi:10.1080/09291016.2016.1207352 · Cited by 44 · see citing works
Guo, J., Marsh, H. W., Parker, P. D., & Hu, X. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09872-3 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“However, this pattern disappears when using other cycles of PISA data (e.g., Stoet & Geary, 2015, 2018; Stoet et al., 2016).”
Huang, F., Peng, D., & Teo, T. P. (2025) · European Journal of Education · doi:10.1111/ejed.70041 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Yu, J., & McLellan, R. (2018) · Learning and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2018.11.010 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Giofrè, D., Cornoldi, C., Martini, Á., & Toffalini, E. (2020) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2020.101467 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“Recent evidence also has shown that there are more males than females with relative advantages in mathematics (i.e., their math achievement larger than their reading achievement), which results in a bias toward STEM fields (Stoet & Geary, 2015, 2018).”
BackgroundUnderstanding the gender gap in school performance among low-income children
Kingdon, D., Serbin, L., & Stack, D. (2017) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025416631836 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“Although large-scale, international studies have documented consistent differences in the academic performance of males and females (Stoet & Geary, 2013, 2015; Voyer & Voyer, 2014), little is known about the factors that produce these differences, especially among low-income samples who have the…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMultilevel Models of the Relationship Between Music Achievement and Reading and Math Achievement
Bergee, M. J., & Weingarten, K. M. (2020) · Journal of Research in Music Education · doi:10.1177/0022429420941432 · Cited by 35 · see citing works
“The sex of participants has received a great deal of attention, although differences are not always found (Jackson, 2012) and sometimes are confounded with other variables and with outliers (Long et al., 2007; Stoet & Geary, 2015).”
BackgroundSingle-mother families and the gender gap in children’s time investment and non-cognitive skills
Mencarini, L., Pasqua, S., & Romiti, A. (2017) · Review of Economics of the Household · doi:10.1007/s11150-017-9385-x · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“…PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) study, boys obtain worse test scores than girls in 70 percent of the 74 countries evaluated (Stoet and Geary, 2015), although there are some differences in the results among the three fields (reading, mathematics and science) included in the…”
ResultTrajectories of insecurity: Young adults' employment entry, health and well-being
Klug, K., Drobnič, S., & Brockmann, H. (2019) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2019.05.005 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Educational policies and the gender gap in test scores: a cross-country analysis
Hermann, Z., & Kopasz, M. (2019) · Research Papers in Education · doi:10.1080/02671522.2019.1678065 · Cited by 32 · see citing works
“Early tracking and standardisation are key themes in this literature (Van de Werfhorst 2015; Hanushek and Woessmann 2010).”
BackgroundGender Gap Among High Achievers in Math and Implications for STEM Pipeline
Zhou, Y., Fan, X., Wei, X., & Tai, R. H. (2017) · The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher · doi:10.1007/s40299-017-0346-1 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Anwar, S., Salsabila, I., Sofyan, R., & Amna, Z. (2019) · Jurnal Psikologi · doi:10.14710/jp.18.2.281-296 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Gender gap and access to finance: A cross‐country analysis
Chundakkadan, R., & Sasidharan, S. (2021) · Review of Development Economics · doi:10.1111/rode.12830 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Dutta, D. (2017) · Journal of Family Communication · doi:10.1080/15267431.2017.1363045 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“This line of research suggests that lack of interest rather than cognitive ability is a factor to consider, which potentially keeps young women from pursuing engineering careers (Stoet & Geary, 2015; Valla & Ceci, 2014).”
BackgroundIntersectional effects of Socioeconomic status, phase and gender on Mathematics achievement
Cascella, C. (2019) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2019.1614432 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“Nevertheless, more recent studies have disclosed small and narrowing relationships between gender bias and female disadvantages in mathematics (Ireson 2017; Stoet and Geary 2015, 2018), thus calling for more investigations.”
BackgroundBorgonovi, F., & Greiff, S. (2020) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2019.101422 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Sex Differences in Episodic Memory Variance
Asperholm, M., van Leuven, L., & Herlitz, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00613 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
How outdoor science education can help girls stay engaged with science
Stevenson, K. T., Szczytko, R., Carrier, S., & Peterson, M. N. (2021) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2021.1900948 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“While it is encouraging that gender gaps seem to be shrinking in areas such as academic achievement among girls (Stoet & Geary, 2015), these trends do not hold among girls of colour (Collins et al., 2020), and because gaps persist, so should initiatives to mitigate them (Beede et al., 2011).”
BackgroundModelling Adult Skills in OECD Countries
Scandurra, R., & Calero, J. (2016) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.3290 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“The evidence, however, is mixed and these differences are inversely correlated across the four waves of PISA between and within countries (Stoet & Geary 2015).”
Sex-specific academic ability and attitude patterns in students across developed countries
Stoet, G., & Geary, D. C. (2020) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2020.101453 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“The sex differences in academic abilities and attitudes are not only of theoretical interest, but also of a sociopolitical concern because they influence the occupational and educational choices of women and men (Stoet & Geary, 2015).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationHoffmann, M. S., McDaid, D., Salum, G. A., Ribeiro, W. S., Ziebold, C., King, D., Gadelha, A., Miguel, E. C., Mari, J. D. J., Rohde, L. A., et al. (2021) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796021000561 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“…attainment and achievement rates (Voyer and Voyer, 2014; Lavoie et al., 2019) and higher rates of externalising conditions compared to females (Stoet and Geary, 2015), whereas females have higher rates of distress-related conditions (such as major depression) and are more likely to be…”
BackgroundGeneral or specific abilities? Evidence from 33 countries participating in the PISA assessments
Pokropek, A., Marks, G. N., Borgonovi, F., Koc, P., & Greiff, S. (2022) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2022.101653 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Cascella, C., Williams, J. S., & Pampaka, M. (2021) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-021-02764-x · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Oberleiter, S., Fries, J., Schock, L. S., Steininger, B., & Pietschnig, J. (2023) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2023.101784 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The Cambridge Handbook of the International Psychology of Women
Cheung, F. M., & Halpern, D. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Hetlevik, Ø., Bøe, T., & Hysing, M. (2018) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/cky026 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Gender matters when sports engagement and self-efficacy interact with academic achievement
Shoval, E., Shachaf, M., Dvir, O. R., & Shulruf, B. (2020) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-020-09598-4 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Composing Meaningful Lives: Exceptional Women and Men at Age 50
Lubinski, D., Benbow, C. P., McCabe, K. O., & Bernstein, B. O. (2023) · Gifted Child Quarterly · doi:10.1177/00169862231175831 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Bedyńska, S., Krejtz, I., Rycielski, P., & Sędek, G. (2020) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-020-09557-z · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“Additionally, as language skills are highly correlated with mathematics and science, they show their relevance for success in STEM domains (Stoet and Geary 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-perceived competence and social acceptance of young children who stutter: Initial findings
Rodgers, N. H., & Zebrowski, P. M. (2016) · Journal of Communication Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jcomdis.2016.08.004 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“This gender gap in academic achievement continues into the school years and adulthood, with a female advantage for reading and writing (Scheiber, Reynolds, Hajovsky, & Kaufman, 2015; Stoet & Geary, 2015).”
BackgroundSelf-Reported Academic Performance and Lifestyle Habits of School Children in Japan
Kohyama, J. (2017) · International Journal of Child Health and Nutrition · doi:10.6000/1929-4247.2017.06.03.1 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Recently, based on the Programme for International Student Assessment conducted by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, Stoet and Geary [22] concluded that girls’ overall achievement (across mathematics, reading, and science) exceeds that of boys’.”
MethodGENDER PAY GAPS IN THE FORMER SOVIET UNION: A REVIEW OF THE EVIDENCE
Khitarishvili, T. (2019) · Journal of Economic Surveys · doi:10.1111/joes.12321 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“8 Out of the former Soviet countries in this analysis, Weichselbaumer and Winter-Ebmer (2005) include the Russian Federation and Paci and Reilly (2004) include Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyz Republic, Russian Federation, Tajikistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan.”
BackgroundEquity in mathematics education in Hong Kong: evidence from TIMSS 2011 to 2019
Qiu, X., & Leung, F. (2022) · Large-scale Assessments in Education · doi:10.1186/s40536-022-00121-z · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“For example, Stoet and Geary (2015) found that for overall achievement across reading, mathematics, and science literacy in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), girls outperformed boys in most countries, including many where there are considerable gaps in the political or…”
BackgroundRowe, S. L., Zimmer‐Gembeck, M. J., & Hood, M. (2016) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.04.001 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Halkjelsvik, T., & Jørgensen, M. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-74953-2 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Ideological Bias in the Psychology of Sex and Gender
Giudice, M. D. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-29148-7_28 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Expert performance of men and women: A cross-cultural study in the chess domain
Blanch, À. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.05.050 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Gender achievement and social, political and economic equality: a European perspective
Ireson, G. (2016) · Educational Studies · doi:10.1080/03055698.2016.1237868 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“Stoet and Geary (2015) further note that stratification hypotheses”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialGENDER EQUALITY AND THE GENDER GAP IN MATHEMATICS
Tao, H., & Michalopoulos, C. (2017) · Journal of Biosocial Science · doi:10.1017/s0021932017000141 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
The Male Gender Empathy Gap: Time for psychology to take action.
Farrell, W. S., Seager, M., & Barry, J. A. (2016) · UCL Discovery (University College London) · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Lubinski, D. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2009042117 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Wei, B., Qiang, D., & Jialing, M. (2020) · Chinese Education & Society · doi:10.1080/10611932.2020.1791538 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Viberg, O. (2015) · Diva portal (Dalarna University Library) · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Optimism Predictive Ability and Psychological Flexibility among Students during COVID-19 Pandemic
Salah, B. M., Alhamad, N. F., Alazzam, A. A., Albadarneh, M. M., Alqiam, H. A. A., & Rababah, M. A. (2022) · Journal of Educational and Social Research · doi:10.36941/jesr-2022-0134 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Amador‐Licona, N., Mendoza, J. M. G., Briceño-Martínez, I., Rodríguez-Bogarín, B. A., & Villegas-Elizarrarás, L. M. (2020) · Nova Scientia · doi:10.21640/ns.v12i24.2251 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Academic Stress, Social Support, and Adjustment Among International Students in India
Joseph, M., & Sudhesh, N. T. (2023) · Journal of Comparative & International Higher Education · doi:10.32674/jcihe.v15i3.4756 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“Women demonstrated better maintenance and processing of social support, and some studies have also indicated their superior academic achievement (Belle, 1991; Stoet & Geary, 2015; Voyer & Voyer, 2014).”
ResultComparing Spatial Ability of Male and Female Students Completing Humanities vs. Technical Degrees
Есипенко, Е. А., Павловна, М. Е., Budakova, A. V., Sharafieva, K. R., Ismatullina, V. I., Feklicheva, I. V., Chipeeva, N., Soldatova, E. L., Borodaeva, Z. E., Rimfeld, K., et al. (2018) · Psychology in Russia State of Art · doi:10.11621/pir.2018.0403 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“By contrast, girls, on average, showed higher performance in reading than in math and science in all countries (Stoet & Geary, 2015).”
Silm, G., Must, O., & Täht, K. (2019) · Trames Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.3176/tr.2019.3.06 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“Gender differences have been found to be a factor in educational achievement (Duckworth and Seligman 2006, Pekkarinen 2012, Stoet and Geary 2015, Voyer and Voyer 2014), as well as in test-taking motivation (DeMars, Bashkov and Socha 2013) and in social desirability with regard to questionnaire…”
BackgroundWong, W. I., & VanderLaan, D. P. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.009 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Effective University Instructors as Perceived by Turkish and Omani University Students
Al-Busaidi, S. S., Aldhafri, S., & Büyükyavuz, O. (2016) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/2158244016662900 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Creativity in liberal education before and after study commencement
van Goch, M. M. (2018) · International Conference on Higher Education Advances (HEAd) · doi:10.4995/head18.2018.8228 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“However, since there is much debate in the literature about these kind of sex differences (Miller & Hapern, 2014; Stoet & Geary, 2015), and since these sex differences did not occur across the board in this study, these results should be interpreted with caution and further research investigating…”
ResultKaynak, Ü., Kaynak, S., & Koçak, S. S. (2023) · RMLE Online · doi:10.1080/19404476.2023.2171655 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Psychometric Properties of the WRAT Math Computation Subtest in Mexican Adolescents
Abreu‐Mendoza, R. A., Chamorro, Y., & Matute, E. (2018) · Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment · doi:10.1177/0734282918809793 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“Whereas most studies find higher performance in boys (Diamantopoulou, Pina, Valero-Garcia, González-Salinas, & Fuentes, 2012; Stoet & Geary, 2015), others have found that girls outperform boys in curriculum-based measurements (Yarbrough, Cannon, Bergman, Kidder-Ashley, & McCane-Bowling, 2017), and…”
MethodResultCascella, C., Williams, J. S., & Pampaka, M. (2021) · European Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1177/1474904121997211 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
“In contrast, recent few studies (e.g. Ireson, 2017; Stoet and Geary, 2015, 2018), claimed that there is no significant correlation between mathematics attainment and a gender biased environment drawing on national measures (i.e. PISA and the Global Gender Gap Index respectively).”
ResultSex differences in first graders' literacy skills are mediated by parental input
Vasilyeva, M., Antipkina, I., Coughlan, M., & Kardanova, E. (2021) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2021.101318 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Gender Dimensions of Education Access and Achievement in Sri Lanka
Shojo, M., Ebenezer, R., & Aturupane, H. (2018) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/30624 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Heterosis in COMT Val158Met Polymorphism Contributes to Sex-Differences in Children’s Math Anxiety
Júlio-Costa, A., Martins, A. A. S., Wood, G. M. D. O., Almeida, M. P., de Miranda, M., Haase, V. G., & Carvalho, M. R. S. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01013 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Personal Innovativeness and Employability: How Personal Traits Affect Employer Attractiveness
Pilav-Velić, A., Selimović, J., & Jahić, H. (2020) · Eurasian studies in business and economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-48505-4_2 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
The Not So Subtle and Status Quo Maintaining Nature of Everyday Sexism
Vescio, T. K., & Kosakowska‐Berezecka, N. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108561716.019 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Zambrana, I. M., Dearing, E., Nærde, A., & Zachrisson, H. D. (2015) · European Early Childhood Education Research Journal · doi:10.1080/1350293x.2015.1035538 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
“…severe longlasting impairments, together with the historically recent educational falling back in boys compared to girls (Huttenlocher et al. 1991; Stoet and Geary 2015; Tomblin et al. 1997), could reflect broader differences in biological maturational courses and, in turn, differential…”
BackgroundHow Does Schooling Affect Inequality in Cognitive Skills? The View From Seasonal Comparison Research
Downey, D. B. (2023) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543231210005 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
“…favored boys, but as girls’ school performance has improved relative to boys both in the united States (DiPrete & Buchmann, 2013) and internationally (Stoet & geary, 2015, 2018, 2020), this position has shifted, with scholars now wondering if schools might favor girls (Rosin, 2012; Tyre, 2008).”
Söderlund, T., & Madison, G. (2017) · Scientometrics · doi:10.1007/s11192-017-2407-x · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“…in patterns predicted by evolutionary theories, in particular those related to differential parental investment, costly signaling, and mate selection (e.g., Buss and Shackelford 2008; Stoet and Geary 2015; Verweij et al. 2016; Wåhlin-Jacobsen et al. 2015; for reviews, see Buss 2003; Schmitt 2005).”
BackgroundGindi, S., Kohan-Mass, J., & Pilpel, A. (2019) · Roeper Review · doi:10.1080/02783193.2019.1622163 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“Nonetheless, they found that while boys fell behind across subjects, it was the opposite for the children at the high tail-end of the distribution, where boys did better (Stoet & Geary, 2015).”
BackgroundIlmarinen, V., Vainikainen, M., & Lönnqvist, J. (2022) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1177/08902070221088155 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
“In Finland, sex differences have been slightly larger than average (between d = .18 and d = .28; Stoet & Geary, 2015).”
BackgroundGender Dimensions of Inequality in the Countries of Central Asia, South Caucasus, and Western CISPreprint
Khitarishvili, T. (2016) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2727425 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
- Authors
- Stoet, G., & Geary, D. C.
- Affiliations
- University of Glasgow (GB)
- University of Missouri (US)
- Corresponding author
- Stoet, Gijsbert
- Venue
- Intelligence
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2015-01
- Volume
- 48
- Pages
- 137-151
- ISSN
- 0160-2896 (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W1969032653
- Cited by
- 227
- References
- 88
- Citations by year
- 2026: 7 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 5 · 2023: 20 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 12 · 2020: 71 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 17 · 2017: 19 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 5
- FWCI
- 18.12
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Intelligence (publishedVersion)
- Open Access at Essex (University of Essex) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
- Social Sciences › Education › School Choice and Performance
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Intergenerational and Educational Inequality Studies
- Keywords
- gender equality, PISA, mathematics achievement, girls' academic performance, political equality, economic equality, women's underrepresentation in leadership
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