Topical Review: Fetal Testosterone and Sex Differences in Typical Social Development and in Autism
Abstract
Experiments in animals leave no doubt that androgens, including testosterone, produced by the testes in fetal and/or neonatal life act on the brain to induce sex differences in neural structure and function. In human beings, there is evidence supporting a female superiority in the ability to read nonverbal signals, specific language-related skills, and theory of mind. Even more striking than the sex differences seen in the typical population is the elevated occurrence of social and communicative difficulties in human males. One such condition, autism, occurs four times more frequently in boys than in girls. Recently, a novel theory known as the "extreme male brain" has been proposed. It suggests that the behaviors seen in autism are an exaggeration of typical sex differences and that exposure to high levels of prenatal testosterone might be a risk factor. In this article, we argue that prenatal and neonatal testosterone exposures are strong candidates for having a causal role in sexual dimorphism in human behavior, including social development, and as risk factors for conditions characterized by social impairments, particularly autism spectrum conditions.
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Amniotic testosterone level is correlated with ASD-related traits in children regardless of diagnosis.
“Amniotic testosterone level is correlated with ASD-related traits in children regardless of diagnosis (Auyeung et al., 2012, 2010; Chapman et al., 2006; Knickmeyer and Baron-Cohen, 2006; Lutchmaya et al., 2002a, 2002b).”
From Excess Neonatal Testosterone Causes Male-Specific Social and Fear Memory Deficits in Wild-Type Mice (2025) · cites this paper as Knickmeyer and Baron-Cohen, 2006
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- Authors
- Knickmeyer, R. C., & Baron-Cohen, S.
- Affiliations
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (US)
- The Autism Research Centre Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Corresponding author
- Knickmeyer, Rebecca Christine
- Venue
- Journal of Child Neurology
- Publisher
- SAGE Publications
- Published
- 2006-10
- Volume
- 21
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 825-845
- ISSN
- 0883-0738 (ISSN-L)
- 1708-8283
- OpenAlex
- W2014925500
- Cited by
- 230
- References
- 250
- Citations by year
- 2026: 2 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 6 · 2023: 10 · 2022: 9 · 2021: 13 · 2020: 11 · 2019: 9 · 2018: 9 · 2017: 10 · 2016: 14 · 2015: 17 · 2014: 15 · 2013: 13 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 1.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Child Neurology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Sexual Differentiation and Disorders
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Neuroendocrine regulation and behavior
- Keywords
- prenatal testosterone, sex differences, autism spectrum disorder, social development (developmental psychology), extreme male brain theory, androgens, social communication deficits, theory of mind, sexual dimorphism, autism risk factors
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Autistic Disorder, Female, Fetus, Humans, Male, Pregnancy, Sex Characteristics, Social Change, Testosterone
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