Dopamine, effort, and decision making: Theoretical comment on Bardgett et al. (2009).
Open accessAbstract
Forebrain dopamine (DA) systems are thought to be a critical component of the brain circuitry regulating behavioral activation, work output during instrumental behavior, and effort-related decision making. Tasks that offer animals choices between alternatives that require different degrees of effort can be used to assess effort-related choice behavior. Rats treated with DA antagonists, or with accumbens DA depletions, tend to show reduced selection of instrumental behaviors with high response requirements, and instead they choose to engage in food-seeking behaviors that involve less effort. The accompanying article by Bardgett et al. describes a novel effort-discounting task that involves the modification of a previously developed T-maze choice procedure (Salamone et al., 1994). Each arm of the maze contained different magnitudes of food reinforcement, and in order to obtain the higher magnitude reward, the rats had to climb a barrier in that arm of the maze. With training, rats were able to climb successively higher barriers to obtain the larger amount of food, and the choice between the high barrier arm and the no-barrier arm with the smaller reward served as a template for assessing the effects of dopaminergic drugs. D1 and D2 family antagonists, as well as the DA releasing agent amphetamine, were able to produce a bidirectional modulation of choice behavior, while drugs that act on D3 receptors were ineffective. These studies illustrate features of the neurochemical regulation of effort-related decision making, and may have implications for the understanding of both natural and pathological features of motivation.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
Positive game-playing experiences trigger release of hormones such as endorphins and striatal dopamine that are responsible for feelings of pleasure and well-being.
“Evidence from neuropsychological research further suggests the therapeutic value of game-based digital interventions in depression therapy, finding that positive game-playing experiences trigger the release of hormones such as endorphins and striatal dopamine7,8 that are responsible for feelings of pleasure and well-being.9,10”
From Game-based digital interventions for depression therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis (2014) · cites this paper as [10]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Effort-related functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine and associated forebrain circuits
Salamone, J. D., Correa, M., Farrar, A., & Mingote, S. M. (2007) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0668-9 · Cited by 1,000 · see citing works
Self-citationSalamone, J. D., & Correa, M. (2002) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0166-4328(02)00282-6 · Cited by 817 · see citing works
Self-citationMotivation: theory and research
Cofer, C. N., & Appley, M. H. (1964) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 622 · see citing works
Schlosberg, H., & Duffy, E. A. (1964) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1419291 · Cited by 591 · see citing works
Salamone, J. D., Cousins, M. S., & Snyder, B. J. (1997) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(96)00017-6 · Cited by 514 · see citing works
Self-citationDETERMINATION OF DISCOUNT FUNCTIONS IN RATS WITH AN ADJUSTING‐AMOUNT PROCEDURE
Richards, J. B., Mitchell, S. H., de Wit, H., & Seiden, L. S. (1997) · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · doi:10.1901/jeab.1997.67-353 · Cited by 493 · see citing works
Walton, M. E., Bannerman, D. M., Alterescu, K., & Rushworth, M. F. S. (2003) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.23-16-06475.2003 · Cited by 486 · see citing works
Salamone, J. D., Steinpreis, R. E., McCullough, L. D., Smith, P., Grebel, D., & Mahan, K. (1991) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf02245659 · Cited by 436 · see citing works
Self-citationDopaminergic and Glutamatergic Regulation of Effort- and Delay-Based Decision Making
Floresco, S., Tse, M., & Ghods-Sharifi, S. (2007) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301565 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
Salamone, J. D., Correa, M., Mingote, S., & Weber, S. M. (2003) · The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics · doi:10.1124/jpet.102.035063 · Cited by 433 · see citing works
Self-citationThe role of rat medial frontal cortex in effort-based decision making
Walton, M. E., Bannerman, D. M., & Rushworth, M. F. S. (2002) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.22-24-10996.2002 · Cited by 364 · see citing works
The psychology and economics of demand.
Lea, S. E. G. (1978) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.85.3.441 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Amygdala-prefrontal cortical circuitry regulates effort based decision making
Floresco, S. B., & Ghods-Sharifi, S. (2006) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhj143 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Weighing up the benefits of work: Behavioral and neural analyses of effort-related decision making
Walton, M. E., Kennerley, S. W., Bannerman, D. M., Phillips, P. E. M., & Rushworth, M. F. S. (2006) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2006.03.005 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Bickel, W. K., Marsch, L. A., & Carroll, M. E. (2000) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s002130000589 · Cited by 296 · see citing works
Denk, F., Walton, M. E., Jennings, K. A., Sharp, T., Rushworth, M. F. S., & Bannerman, D. M. (2004) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-004-2059-4 · Cited by 294 · see citing works
Salamone, J. D. (1992) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/bf02245133 · Cited by 291 · see citing works
Self-citationThe many faces of fatigue in major depressive disorder
Demyttenaere, K., De Fruyt, J., & Stahl, S. M. (2005) · The International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1017/s1461145704004729 · Cited by 288 · see citing works
Cagniard, B., Balsam, P. D., Brunner, D., & Zhuang, X. (2005) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300966 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
A role for mesencephalic dopamine in activation: commentary on Berridge (2006)
Robbins, T. W., & Everitt, B. J. (2006) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0528-7 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Aberman, J. E., & Salamone, J. D. (1999) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/s0306-4522(99)00004-4 · Cited by 263 · see citing works
Self-citationCousins, M. S., Atherton, A., Turner, L., & Salamone, J. D. (1996) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/0166-4328(95)00151-4 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Self-citationBasal Ganglia Hypermetabolism and Symptoms of Fatigue during Interferon-α Therapy
Capuron, L., Pagnoni, G., Demetrashvili, M. F., Lawson, D. H., Fornwalt, F. B., Woolwine, B., Berns, G. S., Nemeroff, C. B., & Miller, A. H. (2007) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1301362 · Cited by 229 · see citing works
Prefrontostriatal Circuitry Regulates Effort-Related Decision Making
Hauber, W., & Sommer, S. (2009) · Cerebral Cortex · doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn241 · Cited by 224 · see citing works
Striatal Cell Type-Specific Overexpression of ΔFosB Enhances Incentive for Cocaine
Colby, C. R., Whisler, K., Steffen, C., Nestler, E. J., & Self, D. W. (2003) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.23-06-02488.2003 · Cited by 217 · see citing works
Sensitization of Midbrain Dopamine Neuron Reactivity Promotes the Pursuit of Amphetamine
Vezina, P., Lorrain, D. S., Arnold, G. M., Austin, J. D., & Suto, N. (2002) · The Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.22-11-04654.2002 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Salamone, J. D., Wisniecki, A., Carlson, B. B., & Correa, M. (2001) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00249-4 · Cited by 198 · see citing works
Self-citationDopamine modulates effort-based decision making in rats.
Bardgett, M. E., Depenbrock, M., Downs, N., Points, M., & Green, L. (2009) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/a0014625 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
The Psychopharmacology of Energy and Fatigue
Stahl, S. M. (2002) · The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.v63n0102 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Koch, M., Schmid, A., & Schnitzler, H. (2000) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s002130000505 · Cited by 158 · see citing works
Schweimer, J. V., & Hauber, W. (2005) · Learning & Memory · doi:10.1101/lm.90605 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Salamone, J. D. (1988) · Psychobiology · doi:10.3758/bf03327307 · Cited by 147 · see citing works
Self-citationMingote, S., Font, L., Farrar, A. M., Vontell, R., Worden, L. T., Stopper, C. M., Port, R. G., Sink, K. S., Bunce, J. G., Chrobak, J. J., et al. (2008) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.1525-08.2008 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Self-citationNucleus accumbens dopamine and work requirements on interval schedules
Correa, M., Carlson, B. B., Wisniecki, A., & Salamone, J. D. (2002) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/s0166-4328(02)00292-9 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Self-citationMajer, M., Welberg, L. A. M., Capuron, L., Pagnoni, G., Raison, C. L., & Miller, A. H. (2008) · Brain, Behavior, and Immunity · doi:10.1016/j.bbi.2007.12.009 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Mott, A. M., Nunes, E. J., Collins, L. E., Port, R. G., Sink, K. S., Hockemeyer, J., Müller, C. E., & Salamone, J. D. (2009) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-008-1441-z · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Self-citationSink, K. S., Vemuri, K. V., Olszewska, T., Makriyannis, A., & Salamone, J. D. (2007) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-007-0988-4 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Self-citationNadal, R. A., Armario, A., & Janak, P. H. (2002) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-002-1091-5 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Salamone, J. D., Correa, M., Mingote, S., Weber, S. M., & Farrar, A. M. (2006) · Current Psychiatry Reviews · doi:10.2174/157340006776875914 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Self-citationFarrar, A. M., Font, L., Pereira, M., Mingote, S., Bunce, J. G., Chrobak, J. J., & Salamone, J. D. (2008) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.12.034 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Self-citationFont, L., Mingote, S., Farrar, A. M., Pereira, M., Worden, L. T., Stopper, C. M., Port, R. G., & Salamone, J. D. (2008) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-008-1174-z · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Self-citationSchweimer, J. V., Saft, S., & Hauber, W. (2005) · Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.1037/0735-7044.119.6.1687 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Mingote, S., Weber, S. M., Ishiwari, K., Correa, M., & Salamone, J. D. (2005) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2005.03972.x · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Self-citationFarrar, A. M., Pereira, M., VELASCO, F. F., Hockemeyer, J., Müller, C. E., & Salamone, J. D. (2006) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-006-0554-5 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Self-citationWakabayashi, K. T., Fields, H. L., & Nicola, S. M. (2004) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2004.01.013 · Cited by 94 · see citing works
Optimal foraging: theory and experiment
Krebs, J. R. (1977) · Nature · doi:10.1038/268583a0 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Worden, L. T., Shahriari, M., Farrar, A. M., Sink, K. S., Hockemeyer, J., Müller, C. E., & Salamone, J. D. (2008) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-008-1396-0 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Self-citationSeparate measures of ethanol seeking and drinking in the rat
Czachowski, C. L., Santini, L. A., Legg, B. H., & Samson, H. H. (2002) · Alcohol · doi:10.1016/s0741-8329(02)00236-7 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Rats assess costs and benefits according to an internal standard
VANDENBOS, R., VANDERHARST, J., Jonkman, S., Schilders, M., & Spruijt, B. M. (2006) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2006.03.035 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Marinelli, M., Barrot, M., Simon, H., Oberlander, C., Dekeyne, A., Moal, M. L., & Piazza, P. V. (1998) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.1998.00340.x · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Yurgelun-Todd, D. A., Sava, S., & Dahlgren, M. K. (2007) · Neuroimaging Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.nic.2007.08.001 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Game-based digital interventions for depression therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Li, J., Theng, Y.-L., & Foo, S. (2014) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2013.0481 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Hosking, J. G., Floresco, S., & Winstanley, C. A. (2014) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2014.285 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Putting desire on a budget: dopamine and energy expenditure, reconciling reward and resources
Beeler, J. A., Frazier, C. R. M., & Zhuang, X. (2012) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2012.00049 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Farrar, A. M., Segovia, K. N., Randall, P. A., Nunes, E. J., Collins, L. E., Stopper, C. M., Port, R. G., Hockemeyer, J., Müller, C. E., Correa, M., et al. (2010) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.12.056 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Self-citationHosking, J. G., Cocker, P. J., & Winstanley, C. A. (2014) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/npp.2014.27 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Conflict acts as an implicit cost in reinforcement learning
Cavanagh, J. F., Masters, S. E., Bath, K. G., & Frank, M. J. (2014) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms6394 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Task-Load-Dependent Activation of Dopaminergic Midbrain Areas in the Absence of Reward
Boehler, C. N., Hopf, J., Krebs, R. M., Stoppel, C. M., Schoenfeld, M. A., Heinze, H., & Noesselt, T. (2011) · Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1523/jneurosci.4845-10.2011 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Taste uncoupled from nutrition fails to sustain the reinforcing properties of food
Beeler, J. A., McCutcheon, J. E., Cao, Z. F. H., Murakami, M., Alexander, E. R., Roitman, M. F., & Zhuang, X. (2012) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.08167.x · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Dopamine and Food Addiction: Lexicon Badly Needed
Salamone, J. D., & Correa, M. (2012) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2012.09.027 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Self-citationBarnes, S. A., Der‐Avakian, A., & Markou, A. (2013) · European Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.10.001 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Blunted Dopamine Transmission in Addiction: Potential Mechanisms and Implications for Behavior.
Trifilieff, P., Ducrocq, F., van der Veldt, S., & Martinez, D. (2017) · Seminars in nuclear medicine · doi:10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2016.09.003 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Reinforcing value and hypothetical behavioral economic demand for food and their relation to BMI
Epstein, L. H., Paluch, R. A., Carr, K. A., Temple, J. L., Bickel, W. K., & MacKillop, J. M. (2018) · Eating Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.eatbeh.2018.03.008 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Collins, L. E., Sager, T. N., Sams, A. G., Pennarola, A., Port, R. G., Shahriari, M., & Salamone, J. D. (2011) · Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2011.10.015 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Self-citationPereira, M., Farrar, A. M., Hockemeyer, J., Müller, C. E., Salamone, J. D., & Morrell, J. I. (2010) · Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1007/s00213-010-2015-4 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Self-citationEffects of virtual reality-based intervention on depression in stroke patients: a meta-analysis
Liu, H., Cheng, Z., Wang, S., Jia, Y., & Li, C. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-31477-z · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Li, F., Cao, W. Y., Li, M.-Y., Xu, Y., Zhang, J.-T., Zhang, J., Luo, X. G., Dai, R. P., Zhou, X., & Li, C. Q. (2012) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.12.057 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Hori, Y., Nagai, Y., Mimura, K., Suhara, T., Higuchi, M., Bouret, S., & Minamimoto, T. (2021) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3001055 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Cocaine: Mechanism and Effects in the Human Brain
Trifilieff, P., & Martinez, D. (2014) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-418679-8.00005-8 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Within-Trial Effects of Stimulus-Reward Associations
Krebs, R. M., Hopf, J., & Boehler, C. N. (2015) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315656878-9 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Jahagirdar, V. (2012) · The Open Diabetes Journal · doi:10.2174/1876524601205010001 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Effects of sensitization on the detection of an instrumental contingency.
Phillips, G., & Vugler, A. (2011) · Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2011.07.009 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
The time, the path, its length and strenuousness in maze learning
M., K., & Tošković, O. (2021) · Psihologija · doi:10.2298/psi210301005k · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Salamone, J. D., Correa, M., Randall, P. A., Nunes, E. J., Pardo, M., & López‐Cruz, L. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-3903-5_23 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationJang, J.-H., & Kim, J. (2025) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2025.106295 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Salamone, J. D., & Correa, M. (2018) · Advances in motivation science · doi:10.1016/bs.adms.2018.01.001 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationRole of alpha-synuclein in the regulation of dopamine neurotransmission in the striatum
Chadchankar, H. (2013) · UEF eRepo (University of Eastern Finland) · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Force Amplitude Modulation of Tongue and Hand Movements
Dietsch, A. M. (2011) · KU ScholarWorks (The University of Kansas)
Hosking, J. (2014) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0166997
Hori, Y., Nagai, Y., Mimura, K., Suhara, T., Higuchi, M., Bouret, S., & Minamimoto, T. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.11.27.400911
Cai, C., Mei, Z., Yang, Y., Shi, Y., & Luo, S. (2026) · BMC Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s12888-026-08036-7
- Authors
- Salamone, J. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Connecticut (US)
- Corresponding author
- Salamone, John D.
- ORCID
- Salamone, John D.
- Venue
- Behavioral Neuroscience
- Published
- 2009-04
- Volume
- 123
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 463-467
- ISSN
- 0735-7044 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-0084
- PMC
- PMC2817983
- OpenAlex
- W1987788368
- Cited by
- 31
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2023: 1 · 2021: 2 · 2020: 1 · 2018: 3 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 1 · 2014: 6 · 2013: 2 · 2012: 6
- FWCI
- 1.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Behavioral Neuroscience (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH078023)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience › Neurotransmitter Receptor Influence on Behavior
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Keywords
- dopamine, effort discounting, T-maze task, accumbens, dopamine D1 receptor, dopamine D2 receptor, dopamine D3 receptor, amphetamine, dopamine antagonists, motivation, instrumental behavior, food seeking
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Decision Making, Dopamine, Models, Biological, Prosencephalon
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review