Mind over milkshakes: Mindsets, not just nutrients, determine ghrelin response.
Abstract
Objective To test whether physiological satiation as measured by the gut peptide ghrelin may vary depending on the mindset in which one approaches consumption of food. Methods On 2 separate occasions, participants (n = 46) consumed a 380-calorie milkshake under the pretense that it was either a 620-calorie "indulgent" shake or a 140-calorie "sensible" shake. Ghrelin was measured via intravenous blood samples at 3 time points: baseline (20 min), anticipatory (60 min), and postconsumption (90 min). During the first interval (between 20 and 60 min) participants were asked to view and rate the (misleading) label of the shake. During the second interval (between 60 and 90 min) participants were asked to drink and rate the milkshake. Results The mindset of indulgence produced a dramatically steeper decline in ghrelin after consuming the shake, whereas the mindset of sensibility produced a relatively flat ghrelin response. Participants' satiety was consistent with what they believed they were consuming rather than the actual nutritional value of what they consumed. Conclusions The effect of food consumption on ghrelin may be psychologically mediated, and mindset meaningfully affects physiological responses to food.
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Labeling unhealthy or ambiguously healthy foods as healthy, as opposed to unhealthy, tasty, or neutral, has negative impacts on taste, satiety, and preference.
“Early work in this area demonstrated negative impacts on taste, satiety, and preference when unhealthy or ambiguously healthy foods (e.g., crackers, cookies) were labeled as healthy as opposed to unhealthy, tasty, or neutral (Crum et al., 2011; Finkelstein & Fishbach, 2010; Lähteenmäki et al., 2010; Raghunathan et al., 2006; Suher et al., 2016; Wansink & Chandon, 2006; Wardle & Huon, 2000).”
From Increasing Vegetable Intake by Emphasizing Tasty and Enjoyable Attributes: A Randomized Controlled Multisite Intervention for Taste-Focused Labeling (2019) · cites this paper as Crum et al., 2011
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Enck, P., Klosterhalfen, S., & Weimer, K. (2016) · Clinical Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.clinthera.2016.11.016 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Vegetarians’ and omnivores’ affective and physiological responses to images of food
Anderson, E., Wormwood, J. B., Barrett, L. F., & Quigley, K. S. (2018) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2018.06.008 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Compared to self-immersion, mindful attention reduces salivation and automatic food bias
Baquedano, C., Vergara, R. C., López, V., Fabar, C., Cosmelli, D. J., & Antoine Lutz, A. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-13662-z · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Beyond expectations: the physiological basis of sensory enhancement of satiety
Yeomans, M. R., Re, R., Wickham, M. S. J., Lundholm, H., & Chambers, L. C. (2016) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/ijo.2016.112 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Differences in gastrointestinal hormones and appetite ratings among obesity classes
Aukan, M. I., Nymo, S., Ollestad, K. H., Boyesen, G. A., DeBenedictis, J. N., Rehfeld, J. F., Coutinho, S. R., & Martins, C. (2022) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2022.105940 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
The Positive Impact of Push vs Pull Progress Feedback
Cauchard, J. R., Frey, J., Zahrt, O. H., Johnson, K., Crum, A. J., & Landay, J. A. (2019) · Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive Mobile Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies · doi:10.1145/3351234 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“…from the psychological and medical sciences is accumulating to suggest that health and longevity outcomes depend not only on actual health-related behavior (e.g., number of steps in a day), but also on individuals’ perceptions (or mindsets) about their health and behavior [15, 16, 18, 33, 66].”
BackgroundSelf-citationLee, I., Kullmann, S., Scheffler, K., Preissl, H. T., & Enck, P. (2018) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqy077 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Top-down expectation effects of food labels on motivation
Wegman, J., van Loon, I., Smeets, P. A. M., Cools, R., & Aarts, E. (2018) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.02.011 · Cited by 29 · see citing works
“Interestingly, the top-down in fl uences of food labels impacts explicit motivation in children (Enax et al., 2015) and can even act on low levels in the gut-brain axis, such as secretion of the gut peptide ghrelin, which signals hunger state to the brain (Crum et al., 2011).”
Egan, P. M., Clarkson, J. J., & Hirt, E. R. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.11.006 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
“, 2008), and overlap considerably with other research suggesting that restorative expectancies mobilize perceptual changes predictive of corresponding restoration (Aslaksen & Flaten, 2008; Crum & Langer, 2007; Crum et al., 2011; Draganich & Erdal, 2014).”
ResultNeuroendocrine Peptides of the Gut and Their Role in the Regulation of Food Intake
Schalla, M. A., Taché, Y., & Stengel, A. (2021) · Comprehensive physiology · doi:10.1002/j.2040-4603.2021.tb00157.x · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Don’t Take It Personally? The Role of Personal Relevance in Conceptual Change
Gill, M. G., Trevors, G., Greene, J. A., & Algina, J. J. (2020) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2020.1754152 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“…or egg” debate about whether it is more effective to first target beliefs or practices, research is clear that changing beliefs is one way to change behavior, as numerous studies in a variety of fields have shown (Crum et al., 2011; Yeager et al., 2016; for a review, see Buehl & Beck, 2015).”
BackgroundThe Relationship between Perceptions and Objective Measures of Greenness
Hart, J. L., Yeager, R. A., Riggs, D. W., Fleischer, D., Owolabi, U., Walker, K. L., Bhatnagar, A., & Keith, R. J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192316317 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“Previous work has shown that perceptions can be closely tied to health outcomes [40,41,43,64].”
BackgroundHow we decide what to eat: Toward an interdisciplinary model of gut–brain interactions
Plaßmann, H., Schelski, D. S., Simon, M., & Koban, L. (2021) · Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews Cognitive Science · doi:10.1002/wcs.1562 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
“sensible) of a consumed food affect ghrelin levels (Crum et al., 2011).”
BackgroundVéliz, C., Maslen, H., Essman, M., et al. (2019) · The Hastings center report · doi:10.1002/hast.1067 · Cited by 23
“For example, the expectation of drinking an “indulgent” versus a “sensible” shake differentially affects the release of the hunger-regulating hormone ghrelin.(28)”
BackgroundHoffmann, V. S., Lanz, M., Mackert, J., Müller, T. D., Tschöp, M. H., & Meißner, K. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00706 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“Crum and colleagues went one step further and evaluated the impact of expectations on plasma levels of the gut hormone ghrelin, a physiological marker of appetite (7).”
BackgroundProviding Choice in Exercise Influences Food Intake at the Subsequent Meal
Beer, N. J., Dimmock, J. A., Jackson, B., & Guelfi, K. J. (2017) · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · doi:10.1249/mss.0000000000001330 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Furthermore, researchers are encouraged to investigate whether autonomy in exercise influences the physiological regulation of appetite, given preliminary evidence in the literature to suggest that the circulating concentrations of appetiteregulating peptides may be altered by psychological mindset alone (5).”
Context-dependency in valuation
Tymula, A. A., & Plaßmann, H. (2016) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/j.conb.2016.06.015 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Placebo effects in obesity research
Fontaine, K. R., Williams, M. S., Hoenemeyer, T. W., Kaptchuk, T. J., & Dutton, G. R. (2016) · Obesity · doi:10.1002/oby.21456 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Neural correlates of taste perception in congenital blindness
Gagnon, L., Kupers, R. C., & Ptito, M. (2015) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.02.027 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Through learning, vision powerfully sharpens our expectations about a food and prepares the body to respond accordingly (Feldman and Richardson, 1986; Powley, 2000; Crum et al., 2011).”
BackgroundPlacebo Effects on Visual Food Cue Reactivity: An Eye-Tracking Investigation
Potthoff, J., Jurinec, N., & Schienle, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00525 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“(20, 21)] or with patients suffering from eating disorders [e.”
Background
- Authors
- Crum, A. J., Corbin, W. R., Brownell, K. D., & Salovey, P.
- Affiliations
- Yale University (US)
- Arizona State University (US)
- Venue
- Health Psychology
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 424-429
- ISSN
- 0278-6133 (ISSN-L)
- 1930-7810
- OpenAlex
- W2092456099
- Cited by
- 278
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 15 · 2025: 15 · 2024: 17 · 2023: 23 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 17 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 15 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 23 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 11 · 2013: 15 · 2012: 10
- FWCI
- 5.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2011-07-11)
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Health Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Rudd Foundation
- Yale Center for Clinical Investigation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
- Keywords
- ghrelin, mindset, food labeling, satiety, milkshakes
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Eating, Humans, Satiation, Ghrelin, Young Adult
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