Ghrelin and the short- and long-term regulation of appetite and body weight

Cummings, David E.

doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.05.022

Cited by 620Regulation of Appetite and ObesityAdipokines, Inflammation, and Metabolic DiseasesHypothalamic control of reproductive hormones

Ghrelin and the short- and long-term regulation of appetite and body weight

Cummings, David E.·2006·Physiology & Behavior

DOI 10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.05.022

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Abstract

Ghrelin, an acylated upper gastrointestinal peptide, is the only known orexigenic hormone. Considerable evidence implicates ghrelin in mealtime hunger and meal initiation. Circulating levels decrease with feeding and increase before meals, achieving concentrations sufficient to stimulate hunger and food intake. Preprandial ghrelin surges occur before every meal on various fixed feeding schedules and also among individuals initiating meals voluntarily without time- or food-related cues. Ghrelin injections stimulate food intake rapidly and transiently, primarily by increasing appetitive feeding behaviors and the number of meals. Preprandial ghrelin surges are probably triggered by sympathetic nervous output. Postprandial suppression is not mediated by nutrients in the stomach or duodenum, where most ghrelin is produced. Rather, it results from post-ingestive increases in lower intestinal osmolarity (information probably relayed to the foregut via enteric nervous signaling), as well as from insulin surges. Consequently, ingested lipids suppress ghrelin poorly compared with other macronutrients. Beyond a probable role in meal initiation, ghrelin also fulfills established criteria for an adiposity-related hormone involved in long-term body-weight regulation. Ghrelin levels circulate in relation to energy stores and manifest compensatory changes in response to body-weight alterations. Ghrelin crosses the blood-brain barrier and stimulates food intake by acting on several classical body-weight regulatory centers, including the hypothalamus, hindbrain, and mesolimbic reward system. Chronic ghrelin administration increases body weight via diverse, concerted actions on food intake, energy expenditure, and fuel utilization. Congenital ablation of the ghrelin or ghrelin-receptor gene causes resistance to diet-induced obesity, and pharmacologic ghrelin blockade reduces food intake and body weight. Ghrelin levels are high in Prader-Willi syndrome and low after gastric bypass surgery, possibly contributing to body-weight alterations in these settings. Extant evidence favors roles for ghrelin in both short-term meal initiation and long-term energy homeostasis, making it an attractive target for drugs to treat obesity and/or wasting disorders.

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Meal-related humoral signals can be modulated by long-term homeostatic signals influenced by body energy stores, namely leptin, insulin, and ghrelin.
“In addition, these meal-related humeral signals can be modulated by the more tonic, or long-term, homeostatic signals which are influenced by body energy stores, namely leptin, insulin [11,12], and ghrelin [13].”
From Homeostatic and Circadian Control of Food Intake: Clinical Strategies to Prevent Overconsumption (2013) · cites this paper as [13]

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Genetics and Pathophysiology of Human Obesity
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Endogenous Ghrelin in Pancreatic Islets Restricts Insulin Release by Attenuating Ca2+ Signaling in β-Cells
Dezaki, K., Hosoda, H., Kakei, M., Hashiguchi, S., Watanabe, M., Kangawa, K., & Yada, T. (2004) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/diabetes.53.12.3142 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Ghrelin and glucagon-like peptide 1 concentrations, 24-h satiety, and energy and substrate metabolism during a high-protein diet and measured in a respiration chamber
Lejeune, M. P., Westerterp, K. R., Adam, T. C., Luscombe-Marsh, N. D., & Westerterp-Plantenga, M. S. (2006) · The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn/83.1.89 · Cited by 363 · see citing works
Systemic Administration of Ghrelin Induces Fos and Egr‐1 Proteins in the Hypothalamic Arcuate Nucleus of Fasted and Fed Rats
Hewson, A. K., & Dickson, S. L. (2000) · Journal of Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2826.2000.00584.x · Cited by 357 · see citing works
Balance in Ghrelin and Leptin Plasma Levels in Anorexia Nervosa Patients and Constitutionally Thin Women
Tolle, V., Kadem, M., Bluet‐Pajot, M., Frère, D., Foulon, C., Bossu, C., Dardennes, R. M., Mounier, C., Zizzari, P., Lang, F., et al. (2003) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2002-020645 · Cited by 355 · see citing works
Common Structural Basis for Constitutive Activity of the Ghrelin Receptor Family
Holst, B., Holliday, N. D., Bach, A., Elling, C., Cox, H. M., & Schwartz, T. W. (2004) · Journal of Biological Chemistry · doi:10.1074/jbc.m407676200 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
High Circulating Ghrelin: A Potential Cause for Hyperphagia and Obesity in Prader-Willi Syndrome
DelParigi, A., Tschöp, M. H., Heiman, M. L., Salbe, A. D., de Courten, B. V., Sell, S. M., Bunt, J. C., & Tataranni, P. A. (2002) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2002-020871 · Cited by 348 · see citing works
Differential role of the hippocampus, amygdala, and dorsal raphe nucleus in regulating feeding, memory, and anxiety-like behavioral responses to ghrelin.
Carlini, V., Varas, M., Cragnolini, A., Schiöth, H., Scimonelli, T., & Debarioglio, S. R. (2004) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications - BBRC · doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2003.11.150 · Cited by 347 · see citing works
Programmed obesity in intrauterine growth-restricted newborns: modulation by newborn nutrition
Desai, M., Gayle, D. A., Babu, J., & Ross, M. G. (2004) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00340.2004 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
Effects of a fixed meal pattern on ghrelin secretion: evidence for a learned response independent of nutrient status
Drazen, D. L., Vahl, T. P., D’Alessio, D. A., Seeley, R. J., & Woods, S. C. (2006) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2005-0973 · Cited by 334 · see citing works
Peripheral ghrelin selectively increases Fos expression in neuropeptide Y – synthesizing neurons in mouse hypothalamic arcuate nucleus
Wang, L., Saint-Pierre, D. H., & Taché, Y. (2002) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/s0304-3940(02)00241-0 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Ghrelin-producing cells exist as two types of cells, closed- and opened-type cells, in the rat gastrointestinal tract
Sakata, I., Nakamura, K., Yamazaki, M., Matsubara, M., Hayashi, Y., Kangawa, K., & Sakai, T. (2002) · Peptides · doi:10.1016/s0196-9781(01)00633-7 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
Postprandial Suppression of Plasma Ghrelin Level Is Proportional to Ingested Caloric Load but Does Not Predict Intermeal Interval in Humans
Callahan, H. S., Cummings, D. E., PEPE, M. S., Breen, P. A., Matthys, C. C., & Weigle, D. S. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-031267 · Cited by 317 · see citing works
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Ghrelin and Adipose Tissue Regulatory Peptides: Effect of Gastric Bypass Surgery in Obese Humans
Holdstock, C., Engström, B. E., Öhrvall, M., Lind, L., Sundbom, M., & Karlsson, F. A. (2003) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2002-021734 · Cited by 315 · see citing works
Current status of medical and surgical therapy for obesity
Mun, E. C., Blackburn, G. L., & Matthews, J. B. (2001) · Gastroenterology · doi:10.1053/gast.2001.22430 · Cited by 310 · see citing works
Plasma ghrelin concentrations in elderly subjects: comparison with anorexic and obese patients.
Rigamonti, A., Pincelli, A. I., Corrà, B., Viarengo, R., Bonomo, S., Galimberti, D., Scacchi, M., Scarpini, E., Cavagnini, F., & Müller, E. (2002) · Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1677/joe.0.175r001 · Cited by 306 · see citing works
Ultradian Rhythmicity of Ghrelin Secretion in Relation with GH, Feeding Behavior, and Sleep-Wake Patterns in Rats
Tolle, V., Bassant, M., Zizzari, P., Poindessous‐Jazat, F., Tomasetto, C., Epelbaum, J., & Bluet‐Pajot, M. (2002) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/endo.143.4.8712 · Cited by 305 · see citing works
Rhythms of ghrelin, leptin, and sleep in rats: effects of the normal diurnal cycle, restricted feeding, and sleep deprivation
Bodosi, B., Gardi, J., Hajdu, I., Szentirmai, É., Obál, F., & Krueger, J. M. (2004) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00294.2004 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Hyperphagic Effects of Brainstem Ghrelin Administration
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Induction of c-fos Messenger Ribonucleic Acid in Neuropeptide Y and Growth Hormone (GH)-Releasing Factor Neurons in the Rat Arcuate Nucleus Following Systemic Injection of the GH Secretagogue, GH-Releasing Peptide-6
Dickson, S. L., & Luckman, S. M. (1997) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/endo.138.2.4907 · Cited by 301 · see citing works
Treatment of Cachexia With Ghrelin in Patients With COPD
Nagaya, N., Itoh, T., Murakami, S., Oya, H., Uematsu, M., Miyatake, K., & Kangawa, K. (2005) · CHEST Journal · doi:10.1378/chest.128.3.1187 · Cited by 295 · see citing works
Roles for Ghrelin in the Regulation of Appetite and Body Weight
Cummings, D. E. (2003) · Archives of Surgery · doi:10.1001/archsurg.138.4.389 · Cited by 286 · see citing works
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Increased plasma ghrelin level in lung cancer cachexia.
Shimizu, Y., Nagaya, N., Isobe, T., Imazu, M., Okumura, H., Hosoda, H., Kojima, M., Kangawa, K., & Kohno, N. (2003) · PubMed · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Ghrelin, Peptide YY, Glucose-Dependent Insulinotropic Polypeptide, and Hunger Responses to a Mixed Meal in Anorexic, Obese, and Control Female Adolescents
Stock, S., Leichner, P. P., Wong, A. C. K., Ghatei, M. A., Kieffer, T. J., Bloom, S. R., & Chanoine, J. (2005) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2004-1251 · Cited by 279 · see citing works
Plasma Ghrelin Concentrations Are Decreased in Insulin-Resistant Obese Adults Relative to Equally Obese Insulin-Sensitive Controls
McLaughlin, T., Abbasi, F., Lamendola, C. A., Frayo, R. S., & Cummings, D. E. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-031572 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
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Ghrelin Levels Correlate with Insulin Levels, Insulin Resistance, and High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol, But Not with Gender, Menopausal Status, or Cortisol Levels in Humans
Purnell, J. Q., Weigle, D. S., Breen, P. A., & Cummings, D. E. (2003) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-030513 · Cited by 274 · see citing works
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Plasma Ghrelin and Desacyl Ghrelin Concentrations in Renal Failure
Yoshimoto, A., Mori, K., Sugawara, A., Mukoyama, M., Yahata, K., Suganami, T., Takaya, K., Hosoda, H., Kojima, M., Kangawa, K., et al. (2002) · Journal of the American Society of Nephrology · doi:10.1097/01.asn.0000032420.12455.74 · Cited by 273 · see citing works
Ghrelin/motilin-related peptide is a potent prokinetic to reverse gastric postoperative ileus in rat
Trudel, L., Tomasetto, C., Rio, M., Bouin, M., Plourde, V., Eberling, P., & Poitras, P. (2002) · American Journal of Physiology-Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpgi.00339.2001 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
Ingested medium-chain fatty acids are directly utilized for the acyl modification of ghrelin.
Nishi, Y., Hiejima, H., Hosoda, H., Kaiya, H., Mori, K., Fukue, Y., Yanase, T., Nawata, H., Kangawa, K., & Kojima, M. (2005) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2004-0695 · Cited by 267 · see citing works
Active Ghrelin Levels and Active to Total Ghrelin Ratio in Cancer-Induced Cachexia
Garcia, J. M., Garcia‐Touza, M., Hijazi, R. A., Taffet, G. E., Epner, D. E., Mann, D. L., Smith, R. G., Cunningham, G. R., & Marcelli, M. (2005) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2004-1788 · Cited by 262 · see citing works
Structure-activity relationship of ghrelin: pharmacological study of ghrelin peptides.
Matsumoto, M., Hosoda, H., Kitajima, Y., Morozumi, N., Minamitake, Y., Tanaka, S., Matsuo, H., Kojima, M., Hayashi, Y., & Kangawa, K. (2001) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications - BBRC · doi:10.1006/bbrc.2001.5553 · Cited by 261 · see citing works
Vagotomy Dissociates Short- and Long-Term Controls of Circulating Ghrelin
Williams, D. L., Grill, H. J., Cummings, D. E., & Kaplan, J. M. (2003) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2003-1059 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
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Ghrelin regulates mitochondrial-lipid metabolism gene expression and tissue fat distribution in liver and skeletal muscle.
Barazzoni, R., Bosutti, A., Stebel, M., Cattin, M. R., Roder, E., Visintin, L., Cattin, L., Biolo, G., Zanetti, M., & Guarnieri, G. (2005) · American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00115.2004 · Cited by 250 · see citing works
Role for central ghrelin in food intake and secretion profile of stomach ghrelin in rats
MURAKAMI, N., Hayashida, T., Kuroiwa, T., Nakahara, K., Ida, T., Mondal, M. S., Nakazato, M., Kojima, M., & Kangawa, K. (2002) · Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1677/joe.0.1740283 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
Meal-Related Ghrelin Suppression Requires Postgastric Feedback
Williams, D. L., Cummings, D. E., Grill, H. J., & Kaplan, J. M. (2003) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2003-0381 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
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Circulating Ghrelin Is Sensitive to Changes in Body Weight during a Diet and Exercise Program in Normal-Weight Young Women
Leidy, H. J., Gardner, J. K., Frye, B. R., Snook, M. L., Schuchert, M. K., Richard, E. L., & Williams, N. I. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-031471 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
Postembryonic ablation of AgRP neurons in mice leads to a lean, hypophagic phenotype
Bewick, G. A., Gardiner, J., Dhillo, W. S., Kent, A. S., White, N. E., Webster, Z., Ghatei, M. A., & Bloom, S. R. (2005) · The FASEB Journal · doi:10.1096/fj.04-3434fje · Cited by 235 · see citing works
International Union of Pharmacology. LVI. Ghrelin Receptor Nomenclature, Distribution, and Function
Davenport, A. P., Bonner, T. I., Foord, S. M., Harmar, A. J., Neubig, R. R., Pin, J., Spedding, M., Kojima, M., & Kangawa, K. (2005) · Pharmacological Reviews · doi:10.1124/pr.57.4.1 · Cited by 235 · see citing works
The Role of Ghrelin and Growth Hormone Secretagogues Receptor on Rat Adipogenesis
Ki‐choon, C. H. O. I., Roh, S., Hong, Y.-H., Shrestha, Y. B., Hishikawa, D., Chen, C., Kojima, M., Kangawa, K., & Sasaki, S.-I. (2003) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2002-220783 · Cited by 234 · see citing works
The Mitogenic and Antiapoptotic Actions of Ghrelin in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes
Kim, M., Yoon, C.-Y., Jang, P., Park, Y. J., Shin, C. S., Park, H. S., Ryu, J.-W., Pak, Y. K., Park, J. Y., Lee, K., et al. (2004) · Molecular Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/me.2003-0459 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
Differential Responses of Circulating Ghrelin to High-Fat or High-Carbohydrate Meal in Healthy Women
Monteleone, P., Bencivenga, R., Longobardi, N., Serritella, C., & Maj, M. (2003) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-030797 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Agouti-Related Peptide, Neuropeptide Y, and Somatostatin-Producing Neurons Are Targets for Ghrelin Actions in the Rat Hypothalamus
Seoane, L. M., López, M., Tovar, S. A., Casanueva, F. F., Señarís, R. M., & Diéguez, C. (2003) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2002-220795 · Cited by 228 · see citing works
Differential BBB interactions of three ingestive peptides: obestatin, ghrelin, and adiponectin.
Pan, W., Tu, H., & Kastin, A. (2006) · Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.peptides.2005.12.014 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Reversal of Cancer Anorexia by Blockade of Central Melanocortin Receptors in Rats
Wisse, B. E., Frayo, R. S., Schwartz, M. W., & Cummings, D. E. (2001) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/endo.142.8.8324 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
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Central Administration of Ghrelin and Agouti-Related Protein (83–132) Increases Food Intake and Decreases Spontaneous Locomotor Activity in Rats
Tang-Christensen, M., Vrang, N., Ortmann, S., Bidlingmaier, M., Horvath, T. L., & Tschöp, M. (2004) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2004-0529 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Ghrelin levels in obesity and anorexia nervosa: effect of weight reduction or recuperation
Soriano‐Guillén, L., Barrios, V., Campos‐Barros, Á., & Argente, J. (2004) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2003.10.036 · Cited by 223 · see citing works
Secretory dynamics of leptin in adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa and healthy adolescents
Misra, M., Miller, K. K., Kuo, K., Griffin, K. J., Stewart, V., Hunter, E., Herzog, D. B., & Klibanski, A. (2005) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00041.2005 · Cited by 221 · see citing works
Postprandial Response of Plasma Ghrelin Levels to Various Test Meals in Relation to Food Intake, Plasma Insulin, and Glucose
Erdmann, J., Töpsch, R., Lippl, F., Gussmann, P., & SCHUSDZIARRA, V. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-031610 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Hypothalamic growth hormone secretagogue receptor regulates growth hormone secretion, feeding, and adiposity.
Shuto, Y., Shibasaki, T., Otagiri, A., Kuriyama, H., Ohata, H., Tamura, H., Kamegai, J., Sugihara, H., Oikawa, S., & Wakabayashi, I. (2002) · Journal of Clinical Investigation · doi:10.1172/jci0213300 · Cited by 220 · see citing works
Roles of Leptin and Ghrelin in the Loss of Body Weight Caused by a Low Fat, High Carbohydrate Diet
Weigle, D. S., Cummings, D. E., Newby, P. D., Breen, P. A., Frayo, R. S., Matthys, C. C., Callahan, H. S., & Purnell, J. Q. (2003) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2002-021262 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
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Ghrelin Is Expressed in a Novel Endocrine Cell Type in Developing Rat Islets and Inhibits Insulin Secretion from INS-1 (832/13) Cells
Wierup, N., Yang, S., McEvilly, R. J., Mulder, H., & Sundler, F. (2004) · Journal of Histochemistry & Cytochemistry · doi:10.1177/002215540405200301 · Cited by 212 · see citing works
Central Ghrelin Modulates Sympathetic Activity in Conscious Rabbits
Matsumura, K., Tsuchihashi, T., Fujii, K., Abe, I., & Iida, M. (2002) · Hypertension · doi:10.1161/01.hyp.0000035395.51441.10 · Cited by 209 · see citing works
Role of the Duodenum and Macronutrient Type in Ghrelin Regulation
Overduin, J., Frayo, R. S., Grill, H. J., Kaplan, J. M., & Cummings, D. E. (2004) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2004-0609 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Self-citation
Subcutaneous Ghrelin Enhances Acute Food Intake in Malnourished Patients Who Receive Maintenance Peritoneal Dialysis
Wynne, K., Giannitsopoulou, K., Small, C. J., Patterson, M., Frost, G. S., Ghatei, M. A., Brown, E. A., Bloom, S. R., & Choi, P. (2005) · Journal of the American Society of Nephrology · doi:10.1681/asn.2005010039 · Cited by 208 · see citing works
Ghrelin and des-acyl ghrelin both inhibit isoproterenol-induced lipolysis in rat adipocytes via a non-type 1a growth hormone secretagogue receptor
Muccioli, G., Pons, N., Ghé, C., Catapano, F., Granata, R., & Ghigo, E. (2004) · European Journal of Pharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.ejphar.2004.07.066 · Cited by 205 · see citing works
Ghrelin and Energy Balance: Focus on Current Controversies
Cummings, D., Foster‐Schubert, K. E., & Overduin, J. (2005) · Current Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/1389450053174569 · Cited by 204 · see citing works
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Ghrelin: a Gut-Brain Hormone: Effect of Gastric Bypass Surgery
Geloneze, B., Tambascia, M. A., Pilla, V. F., Geloneze, S. R., Repetto, E., & Pareja, J. C. (2003) · Obesity Surgery · doi:10.1381/096089203321136539 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Changes of Body Weight and Plasma Ghrelin Levels after Gastric Banding and Gastric Bypass
Stoeckli, R., Chanda, R., Langer, I., & Keller, U. B. (2004) · Obesity Research · doi:10.1038/oby.2004.43 · Cited by 194 · see citing works
Differential effect of protein and fat on plasma ghrelin levels in man
Erdmann, J., Lippl, F., & SCHUSDZIARRA, V. (2003) · Regulatory Peptides · doi:10.1016/s0167-0115(03)00195-2 · Cited by 193 · see citing works
Ghrelin and Gastric Bypass: Is There a Hormonal Contribution to Surgical Weight Loss?
Cummings, D. E., & Shannon, M. H. (2003) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-030705 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
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Role of Ghrelin Polymorphisms in Obesity Based on Three Different Studies
Ukkola, O. H., Ravussin, É., Jacobson, P., Përusse, L., Rankinen, T., Tschöp, M. H., Heiman, M. L., Leon, A. S., Rao, D. C., Skinner, J. S., et al. (2002) · Obesity Research · doi:10.1038/oby.2002.106 · Cited by 182 · see citing works
Ghrelin Stimulates Appetite, Imagination of Food, GH, ACTH, and Cortisol, but does not Affect Leptin in Normal Controls
Schmid, D. A., Held, K., Ising, M., Uhr, M., Weikel, J. C., & Steiger, A. (2005) · Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1038/sj.npp.1300670 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Genetic determinants of pancreatic ε-cell development
Heller, R. S., Jenny, M., Collombat, P., Mansouri, A., Tomasetto, C., Madsen, O. D., Mellitzer, G., Gradwohl, G., & Serup, P. (2005) · Developmental Biology · doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.06.041 · Cited by 181 · see citing works
Identification of ghrelin and its receptor in neurons of the rat arcuate nucleus
Mondal, M. S., Date, Y., Yamaguchi, H., Toshinai, K., Tsuruta, T., Kangawa, K., & Nakazato, M. (2004) · Regulatory Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.regpep.2004.08.038 · Cited by 176 · see citing works
Changes in ghrelin and ghrelin receptor expression according to feeding status
Kim, M., Yoon, C.-Y., Park, K.-H., Shin, C.-S., Park, K. S., Kim, S.-Y., Cho, B.-Y., & Lee, H.-K. (2003) · Neuroreport · doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000078703.79393.d2 · Cited by 174 · see citing works
Fasting Ghrelin Levels in Physically Active Women: Relationship with Menstrual Disturbances and Metabolic Hormones
Souza, M. J. D., Leidy, H. J., O’Donnell, E., Lasley, B. L., & Williams, N. I. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-032007 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Ghrelin stimulates gastric emptying but is without effect on acid secretion and gastric endocrine cells
de la Cour, C. D., Lindström, E., Norlén, P., & Håkanson, R. (2004) · Regulatory Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.regpep.2004.02.008 · Cited by 169 · see citing works
Centrally administered ghrelin suppresses sympathetic nerve activity in brown adipose tissue of rats
Yasuda, T., Masaki, T., Kakuma, T., & Yoshimatsu, H. (2003) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/s0304-3940(03)00789-4 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Different Plasma Ghrelin Levels after Laparoscopic Gastric Bypass and Adjustable Gastric Banding in Morbid Obese Subjects
Leonetti, F., Silecchia, G., Iacobellis, G., Ribaudo, M. C., Zappaterreno, A., Tiberti, C., Iannucci, C. V., Perrotta, N., Bacci, V., Basso, M. S., et al. (2003) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-030133 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
Loss of Meal-Induced Decrease in Plasma Ghrelin Levels in Patients with Anorexia Nervosa
Nedvidkova, J., Krykorková, I., Barták, V., Papežová, H., Gold, P. W., Alesci, S., & Pacák, K. (2003) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2002-021669 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
The Decrease in Plasma Ghrelin Concentrations following Bariatric Surgery Depends on the Functional Integrity of the Fundus
Frühbeck, G., Diez-Caballero, A., Gil, M. J. C., Montero, I. D., Gómez‐Ambrosi, J., Salvador, J., & Cienfuegos, J. A. (2004) · Obesity Surgery · doi:10.1381/096089204323093363 · Cited by 166 · see citing works
Molecular Forms of Hypothalamic Ghrelin and Its Regulation by Fasting and 2-Deoxy-d-Glucose Administration
Sato, T., Fukue, Y., Teranishi, H., Yoshida, Y., & Kojima, M. (2005) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2005-0174 · Cited by 160 · see citing works
Ghrelin levels from fetal life through early adulthood: relationship with endocrine and metabolic and anthropometric measures
Soriano‐Guillén, L., Barrios, V., Chowen, J. A., Sánchez, I., Vila, S., Quero, J., & Argente, J. (2004) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2003.08.050 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Ghrelin-leptin tango in body-weight regulation
Cummings, D. E., & Foster, K. E. (2003) · Gastroenterology · doi:10.1016/s0016-5085(03)00350-0 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
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Anti-cachectic effect of ghrelin in nude mice bearing human melanoma cells
Hanada, T., Toshinai, K., Kajimura, N., Nara, N., Tsukada, T., Hayashi, Y., Osuye, K., Kangawa, K., Matsukura, S., & Nakazato, M. (2003) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/s0006-291x(02)03028-0 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Secretory dynamics of ghrelin in adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa and healthy adolescents
Misra, M., Miller, K. K., Kuo, K., Griffin, K. J., Stewart, V., Hunter, E., Herzog, D. B., & Klibanski, A. (2005) · American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism · doi:10.1152/ajpendo.00615.2004 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Exogenous and endogenous ghrelin in gastroprotection against stress-induced gastric damage
Brzozowski, T., Konturek, P. C., Konturek, S. J., Kwiecień, S., Drozdowicz, D., Bielański, W., Pajdo, R., Ptak, A., Nikiforuk, A., Pawlik, W. W., et al. (2004) · Regulatory Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.regpep.2004.02.010 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Intracellular Signaling Mechanisms Mediating Ghrelin-Stimulated Growth Hormone Release in Somatotropes
Malagón, M. M., Luque, R. M., Ruiz-Guerrero, E., Rodríguez‐Pacheco, F., García‐Navarro, S., Casanueva, F. F., Gracia‐Navarro, F., & Castano, J. P. (2003) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2003-0723 · Cited by 149 · see citing works
Plasma ghrelin levels during exercise in healthy subjects and in growth hormone-deficient patients
Dall, R., Kanaley, J. A., Hansen, T. K., Møller, N., Christiansen, J. S., Hosoda, H., Kangawa, K., & Jørgensen, J. O. L. (2002) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje.0.1470065 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Elevated Plasma Ghrelin Level in Underweight Patients with Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
Itoh, T., Nagaya, N., Yoshikawa, M., Fukuoka, A., Takenaka, H., Shimizu, Y., Haruta, Y., Oya, H., Yamagishi, M., Hosoda, H., et al. (2004) · American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine · doi:10.1164/rccm.200310-1404oc · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Ghrelin Neutralization by a Ribonucleic Acid-SPM Ameliorates Obesity in Diet-Induced Obese Mice
Shearman, L. P., Wang, S.-P., Helmling, S., Stribling, D. S., Mazur, P., Ge, L., Wang, L., Klußmann, S., MacIntyre, D. E., Howard, A. D., et al. (2005) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2005-0993 · Cited by 141 · see citing works
Fundus Functionality and Ghrelin Concentrations after Bariatric Surgery
Frühbeck, G., Caballero, A. D., & Gil, M. J. (2004) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejm200401153500323 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Regulation of Growth Hormone Secretagogue Receptor Gene Expression in the Arcuate Nuclei of the Rat by Leptin and Ghrelin
Nogueiras, R., Tovar, S. A., Mitchell, S. E., Rayner, D. V., Archer, Z. A., Diéguez, C., & Williams, L. M. (2004) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/diabetes.53.10.2552 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Rigorous Running Increases Growth Hormone and Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I Without Altering Ghrelin
Kraemer, R. R., Durand, R. J., Acevedo, E. O., Johnson, L. G., Kraemer, G. R., HEBERT, E. P., & Castracane, V. D. (2004) · Experimental Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1177/153537020422900304 · Cited by 139 · see citing works
Inhibition of ghrelin action in vitro and in vivo by an RNA-Spiegelmer
Helmling, S., Maasch, C., Eulberg, D., Buchner, K., Schröder, W., Lange, C., Vonhoff, S., Wlotzka, B., Tschöp, M. H., Rosewicz, S., et al. (2004) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0404175101 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
Ghrelin response to carbohydrate-enriched breakfast is related to insulin1–3
Blom, W. A. M., Stafleu, A., de Graaf, C., Kok, F. J., Schaafsma, G., & Hendriks, H. (2005) · American Journal of Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1093/ajcn.81.2.367 · Cited by 134 · see citing works
Resistance to the orexigenic effect of ghrelin in dietary-induced obesity in mice: reversal upon weight loss
Perreault, M., Istrate, N., Wang, L., Nichols, A., Tozzo, E., & Stricker‐Krongrad, A. (2004) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802640 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Plasma levels of active form of ghrelin during oral glucose tolerance test in patients with anorexia nervosa
Nakai, Y., Hosoda, H., Nin, K., Ooya, C., Hayashi, H., Akamizu, T., & Kangawa, K. (2003) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje.0.149r001 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Fasting Plasma Ghrelin Concentrations 6 Months after Gastric Bypass are not Determined by Weight Loss or Changes in Insulinemia
Frühbeck, G., Rotellar, F., Hernández-Lizoáin, J. L., Gil, M. J. C., Gómez‐Ambrosi, J., Salvador, J., & Cienfuegos, J. A. (2004) · Obesity Surgery · doi:10.1381/0960892042386904 · Cited by 131 · see citing works
Ghrelin, Macronutrient Intake and Dietary Preferences in Long–Evans Rats
Beck, B., Musse, N., & Stricker‐Krongrad, A. (2002) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1006/bbrc.2002.6737 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Serum Ghrelin Levels in Response to Glucose Load in Obese Subjects Post‐Gastric Bypass Surgery
Tritos, N. A., Mun, E. C., Bertkau, A., Grayson, R., Maratos–Flier, E., & Goldfine, A. B. (2003) · Obesity Research · doi:10.1038/oby.2003.126 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Vagal stimulation exaggerates the inhibitory ghrelin response to oral fat in humans
Heath, R. W., Jones, R., Frayn, K. N., & Robertson, M. D. (2004) · Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1677/joe.0.1800273 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Central administration of ghrelin preferentially enhances fat ingestion
Shimbara, T., Mondal, M. S., Kawagoe, T., Toshinai, K., Koda, S., Yamaguchi, H., Date, Y., & Nakazato, M. (2004) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2004.07.060 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
The Effects of Gastric Surgery on Systemic Ghrelin Levels in the Morbidly Obese
Lin, E. (2004) · Archives of Surgery · doi:10.1001/archsurg.139.7.780 · Cited by 129 · see citing works
A transient surge of ghrelin secretion before feeding is modified by different feeding regimens in sheep
Sugino, T., Yamaura, J., Yamagishi, M., Ogura, A., Hayashi, R., Kurose, Y., Kojima, M., Kangawa, K., Hasegawa, Y., & TERASHIMA, Y. (2002) · Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications · doi:10.1016/s0006-291x(02)02572-x · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Ghrelin regulates adiposity in white adipose tissue and UCP1 mRNA expression in brown adipose tissue in mice
Tsubone, T., Masaki, T., Katsuragi, I., Tanaka, K., Kakuma, T., & Yoshimatsu, H. (2005) · Regulatory Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.regpep.2005.04.004 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Somatostatin Infusion Lowers Plasma Ghrelin without Reducing Appetite in Adults with Prader-Willi Syndrome
Tan, T., Vanderpump, M. P. J., Khoo, B. C. E., Patterson, M., Ghatei, M. A., & Goldstone, A. P. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0835 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Ghrelin is an orexigenic and metabolic signaling peptide in the arcuate and paraventricular nuclei
Currie, P. J., Mirza, A., Fuld, R., Park, D., & Vasselli, J. R. (2005) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00756.2004 · Cited by 125 · see citing works
Ghrelin attenuates the development of acute pancreatitis in rat.
DEMBINSKI, A. B., Warzecha, Z., Ceranowicz, P., Tomaszewska, R., Stachura, J., Konturek, S. J., & Konturek, P. C. (2003) · PubMed · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Altered ghrelin and peptide YY responses to meals in bulimia nervosa
Kojima, S., Nakahara, T., Nagai, N., Muranaga, T., Tanaka, M., Yasuhara, D., Masuda, A., Date, Y., Ueno, H., Nakazato, M., et al. (2004) · Clinical Endocrinology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2004.02176.x · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Long-term treatment of ghrelin stimulates feeding, fat deposition, and alters the GH/IGF-I axis in the tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus
Riley, L. G., Fox, B. K., Kaiya, H., Hirano, T., & Grau, E. G. (2005) · General and Comparative Endocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.ygcen.2005.01.009 · Cited by 119 · see citing works
Peripheral ghrelin injections stimulate food intake, foraging, and food hoarding in Siberian hamsters
Keen‐Rhinehart, E., & Bartness, T. J. (2004) · American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology · doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00705.2004 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
Ligand Activation Domain of Human Orphan Growth Hormone (GH) Secretagogue Receptor (GHS-R) Conserved from Pufferfish to Humans
Palyha, O. C., Feighner, S. D., Tan, C. P., McKee, K. K., Hreniuk, D. L., Gao, Y., Schleim, K. D., Yang, L., Morriello, G. J., Nargund, R. P., et al. (2000) · Molecular Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/mend.14.1.0412 · Cited by 116 · see citing works
Fasting and Postprandial Hyperghrelinemia in Prader-Willi Syndrome Is Partially Explained by Hypoinsulinemia, and Is Not Due to Peptide YY3–36Deficiency or Seen in Hypothalamic Obesity Due to Craniopharyngioma
Goldstone, A. P., Patterson, M., Kalingag, N., Ghatei, M. A., Brynes, A. E., Bloom, S. R., Grossman, A. B., & Korbonits, M. (2005) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-032209 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Endogenous ghrelin is an orexigenic peptide acting in the arcuate nucleus in response to fasting
Bagnasco, M., Tulipano, G., Melis, M. R., Argiolas, A., Cocchi, D., & Müller, E. E. (2003) · Regulatory Peptides · doi:10.1016/s0167-0115(02)00283-5 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Growth Hormone and Ghrelin Responses to an Oral Glucose Load in Adolescent Girls with Anorexia Nervosa and Controls
Misra, M., Miller, K. K., Herzog, D. B., Ramaswamy, K., Aggarwal, A., Almazan, C., Neubauer, G., Breu, J., & Klibanski, A. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-031861 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Elevated Fasting Plasma Ghrelin in Prader-Willi Syndrome Adults Is Not Solely Explained by Their Reduced Visceral Adiposity and Insulin Resistance
Goldstone, A. P., Thomas, E. L., Brynes, A. E., Castroman, G., Edwards, R., Ghatei, M. A., Frost, G. S., Holland, A. J., Grossman, A. B., Korbonits, M., et al. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-031118 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Circulating Ghrelin Levels Are Suppressed by Meals and Octreotide Therapy in Children with Prader-Willi Syndrome
Haqq, A. M., Stadler, D. D., Rosenfeld, R. G., Pratt, K. L., Weigle, D. S., Frayo, R. S., LAFRANCHI, S. H., Cummings, D. E., & Purnell, J. Q. (2003) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-030205 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Self-citation
Endocrine and metabolic aspects of adult Prader–Willi syndrome with special emphasis on the effect of growth hormone treatment
Höybye, C. (2003) · Growth Hormone & IGF Research · doi:10.1016/j.ghir.2003.09.003 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Ghrelin in chronic liver disease
Tacke, F., Brabant, G. E., Kruck, E., Horn, R., Schöffski, P., Hecker, H., Manns, M. P., & Trautwein, C. (2003) · Journal of Hepatology · doi:10.1016/s0168-8278(02)00438-5 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Short‐Term Effects of Gastric Bypass Surgery on Circulating Ghrelin Levels
Morínigo, R., Casamitjana, R., Moizé, V., Lacy, A. M., Delgado, S., Gomis, R., & Vidal, J. (2004) · Obesity Research · doi:10.1038/oby.2004.139 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Ghrelin Concentration in Cord and Neonatal Blood: Relation to Fetal Growth and Energy Balance
Kitamura, S., Yokota, I., Hosoda, H., Kotani, Y., Matsuda, J., Naito, E., Ito, M., Kangawa, K., & Kuroda, Y. (2003) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2002-021350 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Elevated Umbilical Cord Ghrelin Concentrations in Small for Gestational Age Neonates
Farquhar, J., Heiman, M. L., Wong, A. C. K., Wach, R., Chessex, P., & Chanoine, J. (2003) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-030265 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Low-fat diets and energy balance: how does the evidence stand in 2002?
Astrup, A. V., Buemann, B., Flint, A., & Raben, A. (2002) · Proceedings of The Nutrition Society · doi:10.1079/pns2002149 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Effects of Modified Sham Feeding on Ghrelin Levels in Healthy Human Subjects
Arosio, M., Ronchi, C. L., Beck‐Peccoz, P., Gebbia, C., Giavoli, C., Cappiello, V., Conte, D., & PERACCHI, M. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-032222 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
Endogenous and exogenous glucocorticoids decrease plasma ghrelin in humans
Otto, B., Tschöp, M. H., Heldwein, W., Pfeiffer, A. F. H., & Diederich, S. (2004) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje.0.1510113 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Circulating and cerebrospinal fluid ghrelin and leptin: potential role in altered body weight in Huntington's disease
Popovic, V., Svetel, M., Djurovic, M. N., Petrovic, S., Doknić, M., Pekić, S., Miljić, D., Milic, N. M., Glodic, J., Diéguez, C., et al. (2004) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje.0.1510451 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
Malignant Gastric Ghrelinoma with Hyperghrelinemia
Tsolakis, A. V., Portela‐Gomes, G. M., Stridsberg, M., Grimelius, L., Sundin, A., Eriksson, B. K., Öberg, K. E., & Janson, E. T. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2003-032118 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Circulating levels of ghrelin in human fetuses
CORTELAZZI, D., Cappiello, V., Morpurgo, P., Ronzoni, S., Santis, M. S. N. D., Cetin, I., Beck‐Peccoz, P., & Spada, A. (2003) · European Journal of Endocrinology · doi:10.1530/eje.0.1490111 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Ghrelin treatment reverses the reduction in weight gain and body fat in gastrectomised mice
de la Cour, C. D., Lindqvist, A., Egecioglu, E., Tung, Y. C. L., Surve, V. V., Ohlsson, C., Jansson, J.-O., Erlanson‐Albertsson, C., Dickson, S. L., & Håkanson, R. (2005) · Gut · doi:10.1136/gut.2004.058578 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Ghrelin Gene Expression Is Markedly Higher in Fetal Pancreas Compared with Fetal Stomach: Effect of Maternal Fasting
Chanoine, J., & Wong, A. C. K. (2004) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2004-0053 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Effect of ghrelin and growth hormone‐releasing peptide 6 on septic ileus in mice
Winter, B. Y. D., Man, J. G. D., Seerden, T. C. J., Depoortere, I., Herman, A. G., Peeters, T. L., & Pelckmans, P. A. (2004) · Neurogastroenterology & Motility · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2982.2004.00564.x · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Acute Exercise has no Effect on Ghrelin Plasma Concentrations
Schmidt, A., Maier, C., Schaller, G., Nowotny, P., Bayerle-Eder, M., Buranyi, B., Luger, A., & Wolzt, M. (2004) · Hormone and Metabolic Research · doi:10.1055/s-2004-814342 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Regulation of PIT-1 Expression By Ghrelin and GHRP-6 Through the GH Secretagogue Receptor
García, Á. G., Álvarez, C. V., Smith, R. G., & Diéguez, C. (2001) · Molecular Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/mend.15.9.0694 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Plasma ghrelin levels in patients undergoing haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis
Fontán, M. P., Cordido, F., Rodríguez–Carmona, A., Peteiro, J., Garcia-Naveiro, R., & García‐Buela, J. (2004) · Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation · doi:10.1093/ndt/gfh313 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Changes in Plasma Ghrelin Concentration Immediately after Gastrectomy in Patients with Early Gastric Cancer
Jeon, T. Y., Lee, S., Kim, H. H., Kim, Y. J., Son, H. C., Kim, D. H., & Sim, M. S. (2004) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2004-0872 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Diet, behavior modification, and exercise: a review of obesity treatments from a long-term perspective.
Safer, D. J. (1991) · PubMed · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Progress in Implantable Gastric Stimulation: Summary of Results of the European Multi-Center Study
Luca, M. D., Segato, G., Busetto, L., Favretti, F., Aigner, F., Weiss, H. G., de Gheldere, C., Gaggiotti, G., HIMPENS, J. M., Limão, J., et al. (2004) · Obesity Surgery · doi:10.1007/bf03342136 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Diurnal Rhythm of Agouti-Related Protein and Its Relation to Corticosterone and Food Intake
Lu, X., Shieh, K.-R., Kabbaj, M., Barsh, G. S., Akil, H., & Watson, S. J. (2002) · Endocrinology · doi:10.1210/en.2002-220150 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Ghrelin levels before and after reduction of overweight due to a low-fat high-carbohydrate diet in obese children and adolescents
Reinehr, T., Roth, C. L., Alexy, U., Kersting, M., Kiess, W., & Andler, W. (2005) · International Journal of Obesity · doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0802913 · Cited by 85 · see citing works

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Identification of the acyltransferase that octanoylates ghrelin, an appetite-stimulating peptide hormone.
Yang, J., Brown, M. S., Liang, G., Grishin, N., & Goldstein, J. (2008) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2008.01.017 · Cited by 1,191 · see citing works
Ghrelin
Müller, T. D., Nogueiras, R., Andermann, M. L., Andrews, Z. B., Anker, S. D., Argente, J., Batterham, R. L., Benoit, S. C., Bowers, C. Y., Broglio, F., et al. (2015) · Molecular Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.molmet.2015.03.005 · Cited by 1,034 · see citing works
Self-citation
Gut hormones and the regulation of energy homeostasis
Murphy, K. G., & Bloom, S. R. (2006) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature05484 · Cited by 778 · see citing works
Obesity Pathogenesis: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement
Schwartz, M. W., Seeley, R. J., Zeltser, L. M., Drewnowski, A., Ravussin, E., Redman, L. M., & Leibel, R. L. (2017) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/er.2017-00111 · Cited by 727 · see citing works
A Prospective Randomized Study Between Laparoscopic Gastric Banding and Laparoscopic Isolated Sleeve Gastrectomy: Results after 1 and 3 Years
HIMPENS, J. M., Dapri, G., & Cadière, G. (2006) · Obesity Surgery · doi:10.1381/096089206778869933 · Cited by 715 · see citing works
The Brain, Appetite, and Obesity
Berthoud, H., & Morrison, C. D. (2007) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093551 · Cited by 661 · see citing works
Homeostatic and hedonic signals interact in the regulation of food intake
Lutter, M., & Nestler, E. J. (2009) · The Journal of Nutrition · doi:10.3945/jn.108.097618 · Cited by 614 · see citing works
An active inference theory of allostasis and interoception in depression
Barrett, L. F., Quigley, K. S., & Hamilton, P. (2016) · Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rstb.2016.0011 · Cited by 554 · see citing works
Central Control of Body Weight and Appetite
Woods, S. C., & D’Alessio, D. A. (2008) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2008-1630 · Cited by 460 · see citing works
Ghrelin O -acyltransferase (GOAT) is essential for growth hormone-mediated survival of calorie-restricted mice
Zhao, T., Liang, G., Li, R. L., Xie, X., Sleeman, M. W., Murphy, A. J., Valenzuela, D. M., Yancopoulos, G. D., Goldstein, J. L., & Brown, M. S. (2010) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1002271107 · Cited by 427 · see citing works
Requirement of central ghrelin signaling for alcohol reward
Jerlhag, E., Egecioglu, E., Landgren, S., Salomé, N., Heilig, M. A., Moechars, D., Datta, R., Perrissoud, D., Dickson, S. L., & Engel, J. A. (2009) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.0812809106 · Cited by 424 · see citing works
Ghrelin in the regulation of body weight and metabolism
Castañeda, T. R., Tong, J., Datta, R., Culler, M. D., & Tschöp, M. H. (2009) · Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.yfrne.2009.10.008 · Cited by 350 · see citing works
Changes in gastrointestinal hormone responses, insulin sensitivity, and beta-cell function within 2 weeks after gastric bypass in non-diabetic subjects
Jacobsen, S. H., Olesen, S. C., Dirksen, C., Jørgensen, N. B., Bojsen-Møller, K. N., Kielgast, U., Worm, D., Almdal, T., Naver, L. S., Hvolris, L. E., et al. (2012) · Obesity Surgery · doi:10.1007/s11695-012-0621-4 · Cited by 342 · see citing works
Central and Peripheral Regulation of Food Intake and Physical Activity: Pathways and Genes
Lenard, N. R., & Berthoud, H. (2008) · Obesity · doi:10.1038/oby.2008.511 · Cited by 338 · see citing works
Ghrelin Suppresses Glucose-Stimulated Insulin Secretion and Deteriorates Glucose Tolerance in Healthy Humans
Tong, J., Prigeon, R., Davis, H., Bidlingmaier, M., Kahn, S., Cummings, D., Tschöp, M., & D'Alessio, D. (2010) · Diabetes · doi:10.2337/db10-0504 · Cited by 340 · see citing works
Self-citation
The complex interaction between obesity, metabolic syndrome and reproductive axis: A narrative review
Michalakis, K., Mintziori, G., Kaprara, A., Tarlatzis, B. C., & Goulis, D. G. (2013) · Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.metabol.2012.08.012 · Cited by 321 · see citing works
Olfaction Under Metabolic Influences
Palouzier‐Paulignan, B., Lacroix, M. C., Aimé, P., Baly, C., Caillol, M., Congar, P., Julliard, A., Tucker, K. R., & Fadool, D. A. (2012) · Chemical Senses · doi:10.1093/chemse/bjs059 · Cited by 318 · see citing works
The vagus nerve, food intake and obesity
Berthoud, H.-R. (2008) · Regulatory Peptides · doi:10.1016/j.regpep.2007.08.024 · Cited by 316 · see citing works
Vagal and hormonal gut-brain communication: from satiation to satisfaction
Berthoud, H. ‐. (2008) · Neurogastroenterology & Motility · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2982.2008.01104.x · Cited by 307 · see citing works
Acyl and Total Ghrelin Are Suppressed Strongly by Ingested Proteins, Weakly by Lipids, and Biphasically by Carbohydrates
Foster‐Schubert, K. E., Overduin, J., Prudom, C. E., Liu, J., Callahan, H. S., Gaylinn, B. D., Thorner, M. O., & Cummings, D. E. (2008) · The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism · doi:10.1210/jc.2007-2289 · Cited by 300 · see citing works
Self-citation
Dietary fibres in the regulation of appetite and food intake. Importance of viscosity
Kristensen, M., & Jensen, M. G. (2011) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2010.11.147 · Cited by 297 · see citing works
Peptides and Food Intake
Crespo, C. S., Cachero, A. P., Puebla, L., Barrios, V., & Arilla, E. (2014) · Frontiers in Endocrinology · doi:10.3389/fendo.2014.00058 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Arcuate AgRP neurons mediate orexigenic and glucoregulatory actions of ghrelin
Wang, Q., Liu, C., Uchida, A., Chuang, J.-C., Walker, A. K., Liu, T., Osborne-Lawrence, S. L., Mason, B. L., Mosher, C. A., Berglund, E. D., et al. (2013) · Molecular Metabolism · doi:10.1016/j.molmet.2013.10.001 · Cited by 246 · see citing works
The Role of the Autonomic Nervous System in the Pathophysiology of Obesity
Guarino, D., Nannipieri, M., Iervasi, G., Taddei, S., & Bruno, R. M. (2017) · Frontiers in Physiology · doi:10.3389/fphys.2017.00665 · Cited by 244 · see citing works
Effect of protein, fat, carbohydrate and fibre on gastrointestinal peptide release in humans
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Authors: Cummings, D. E.
Affiliations: University of Washington (US)
Corresponding author: Cummings, David E.
Venue: Physiology & Behavior
Publisher: Elsevier BV
Published: 2006-08
Volume: 89
Issue: 1
Pages: 71-84
ISSN: 0031-9384 (ISSN-L)
DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2006.05.022
OpenAlex: W2090946983
Cited by: 620
References: 264
Citations by year: 2026: 5 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 10 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 17 · 2021: 26 · 2020: 28 · 2019: 19 · 2018: 21 · 2017: 26 · 2016: 45 · 2015: 28 · 2014: 49 · 2013: 33 · 2012: 56
FWCI: 4.49
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.elsevier.com/tdm/userlicense/1.0/ (tdm)
Locations: Physiology & Behavior (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (P01DK68384, U01- DK66568, R01DK-61516, U01DK066568, R01DK061516, P01DK068384)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Endocrine and Autonomic Systems › Regulation of Appetite and Obesity
Health Sciences › Medicine › Epidemiology › Adipokines, Inflammation, and Metabolic Diseases
Health Sciences › Medicine › Reproductive Medicine › Hypothalamic control of reproductive hormones
Keywords: ghrelin, appetite regulation, body weight regulation, meal initiation, dietary intake, energy homeostasis, insulin, growth hormone secretagogue receptor, hypothalamus, mesolimbic reward system, obesity, Prader-Willi syndrome, bariatric surgery, energy expenditure
MeSH terms: Animals, Appetite, Body Weight, Energy Metabolism, Humans, Obesity, Time Factors, Peptide Hormones, Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled, Ghrelin, Receptors, Ghrelin

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Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

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Ghrelin and the short- and long-term regulation of appetite and body weight

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