Cited by 1,134Social and Intergroup PsychologyRacial and Ethnic Identity ResearchPolicing Practices and Perceptions

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The essence of innocence: Consequences of dehumanizing Black children.

Goff, Phillip Atiba, Jackson, Matthew Christian, Di Leone, Brooke Allison Lewis, Culotta, Carmen Marie, DiTomasso, Natalie Ann·2014·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/a0035663

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Abstract

The social category "children" defines a group of individuals who are perceived to be distinct, with essential characteristics including innocence and the need for protection (Haslam, Rothschild, & Ernst, 2000). The present research examined whether Black boys are given the protections of childhood equally to their peers. We tested 3 hypotheses: (a) that Black boys are seen as less "childlike" than their White peers, (b) that the characteristics associated with childhood will be applied less when thinking specifically about Black boys relative to White boys, and (c) that these trends would be exacerbated in contexts where Black males are dehumanized by associating them (implicitly) with apes (Goff, Eberhardt, Williams, & Jackson, 2008). We expected, derivative of these 3 principal hypotheses, that individuals would perceive Black boys as being more responsible for their actions and as being more appropriate targets for police violence. We find support for these hypotheses across 4 studies using laboratory, field, and translational (mixed laboratory/field) methods. We find converging evidence that Black boys are seen as older and less innocent and that they prompt a less essential conception of childhood than do their White same-age peers. Further, our findings demonstrate that the Black/ape association predicted actual racial disparities in police violence toward children. These data represent the first attitude/behavior matching of its kind in a policing context. Taken toget…

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Authors: Goff, P. A., Jackson, M. C., Di Leone, B. A. L., Culotta, C. M., & DiTomasso, N. A.
Affiliations: University of California, Los Angeles (US)
Pennsylvania State University (US)
University of Pennsylvania (US)
ORCID: Goff, Phillip Atiba
Jackson, Matthew Christian
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2014-04
Volume: 106
Issue: 4
Pages: 526-545
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/a0035663
OpenAlex: W2102775714
Cited by: 1,134
References: 66
Citations by year: 2026: 64 · 2025: 105 · 2024: 133 · 2023: 119 · 2022: 124 · 2021: 131 · 2020: 107 · 2019: 91 · 2018: 100 · 2017: 63 · 2016: 61 · 2015: 27 · 2014: 8
FWCI: 172.72
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Russel Sage Foundation
W. K. Kellogg Foundation
Atlantic Philanthropies
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
Keywords: dehumanization, Black children, innocence, childhood, racial disparities in policing, police brutality, Black boys, intergroup perception, age perception
MeSH terms: Adolescent, Adult, Age Factors, Attitude, Child, Crime, Female, Hispanic or Latino, Humans, Male, Morals, Police, Dehumanization, Black People, White People, Young Adult, Racism

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The essence of innocence: Consequences of dehumanizing Black children.

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