Motor simulation beyond the dyad: Automatic imitation of multiple actors.
Open accessAbstract
A large body of research has provided evidence for the idea that individuals simulate the actions of others in their motor system. However, this research has focused almost exclusively on dyadic situations, hence ignoring the fact that social situations often require that the actions of multiple persons are simulated simultaneously. In the current study, we addressed this issue by means of a widely used automatic imitation task. In Experiment 1, it is shown that individuals automatically imitate the actions of 2 agents at the same time. More specifically, the results indicate that 2 identical observed movements produce a stronger imitation effect, whereas 2 different observed movements produce 2 opposite imitation effects that cancel each other out. In Experiment 2, it is shown that the effects obtained in Experiment 1 cannot be explained in terms of attentional capture. Instead, the results point toward an explanation in terms of ideomotor theory. The finding that observers simultaneously represent the actions of multiple agents in their motor system allows for a better understanding of social interaction beyond the dyad.
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Seeing one congruent and one incongruent action produces concurrent facilitation and interference effects that cancel each other out.
“It was argued that seeing one congruent and one incongruent action produced a concurrent facilitation and interference effect that subsequently canceled out each other (Cracco et al., 2015).”
From Automatic imitation of multiple agents: A computational model (2019) · cites this paper as Cracco et al., 2015
The motor system can simultaneously represent multiple observed actions, whether those actions are identical or different.
“Together, this research indicates that the motor system is able to simultaneously represent multiple observed actions, regardless of whether these actions are identical or different actions.”
From Automatic imitation of multiple agents: A computational model (2019) · cites this paper as Cracco et al., 2015
Automatic imitation comprises both a facilitation effect and an interference effect.
“Indeed, it is well-established in the literature that automatic imitation comprises both a facilitation and an interference effect (Brass et al., 2000;Cracco et al., 2015;Genschow et al., 2017).”
From Automatic imitation of multiple agents: A computational model (2019) · cites this paper as Cracco et al., 2015
In a study with two hands performing two different actions, one congruent and one incongruent, response times could not be distinguished from a neutral condition with no hand action.
“The first study found that response times when two hands performed two different actions, one congruent and one incongruent, could not be distinguished from response times when neither hand performed an action.”
From Automatic imitation of multiple agents: A computational model (2019) · cites this paper as Cracco et al., 2015
Seeing two hands performing the same action produces stronger corticospinal excitability and stronger imitation than seeing one hand performing a single action.
“research looking at automatic imitation of multiple agents has shown that seeing two hands performing the same action elicits stronger corticospinal excitability (Cracco, De Coster, Andres, & Brass, 2016) and therefore stronger imitation (Cracco & Brass, 2018a;Cracco, De Coster, Andres, & Brass, 2015) than seeing one hand performing a single action.”
From Automatic imitation of multiple agents: A computational model (2019) · cites this paper as Cracco, De Coster, Andres, & Brass, 2015
Because balance between facilitation and interference is well-grounded in the literature, the model is robust under realistic circumstances.
“Given that such a balance is well-grounded in the literature (Brass et al., 2000;Cracco et al., 2015;Genschow et al., 2017), this indicates that the model is robust under realistic circumstances.”
From Automatic imitation of multiple agents: A computational model (2019) · cites this paper as Cracco et al., 2015
Across four simulations, the model reproduced that automatic imitation becomes stronger when seeing multiple identical actions but weaker when seeing multiple different actions.
“Across four simulations, the model reproduced the finding that automatic imitation becomes stronger when seeing multiple identical actions (Cracco & Brass, 2018a, 2018d;Cracco et al., 2015) but weaker when seeing multiple different actions (Cracco & Brass, 2018b;Cracco et al., 2015).”
From Automatic imitation of multiple agents: A computational model (2019) · cites this paper as Cracco et al., 2015
Identical observed actions activate the same motor representation.
“More specifically, it does so by implementing the hypothesis that identical actions activate the same motor representation (Cracco & Brass, 2018d, 2018a;Cracco et al., 2015Cracco et al., , 2016)).”
From Automatic imitation of multiple agents: A computational model (2019) · cites this paper as Cracco et al., 2015
The congruency effect produced by a single hand was stronger in experiments with two hands than in experiments with four hands.
“consistent with the fact that the congruency effect produced by a single hand was stronger in the experiments with two hands (Cracco et al., 2015) than in the experiments with four hands (Cracco & Brass, 2018d).”
From Automatic imitation of multiple agents: A computational model (2019) · cites this paper as Cracco et al., 2015
The model is robust under realistic circumstances.
“Thus, in line with Simulation 2, these findings suggests that the model is robust under realistic circumstances (Brass et al., 2000;Cracco et al., 2015;Genschow et al., 2017).”
From Automatic imitation of multiple agents: A computational model (2019) · cites this paper as Cracco et al., 2015
Based on the current study, larger groups may provide a stronger trigger to the motor system, leading to stronger imitative responses.
“However, based on the current study, an alternative hypothesis might also be that larger groups provide a stronger trigger to the motor system, leading to stronger imitative responses (Cracco & Brass, 2018a, 2018d;Cracco et al., 2015Cracco et al., , 2016)).”
From Automatic imitation of multiple agents: A computational model (2019) · cites this paper as Cracco et al., 2015
All four previously reported multi-agent imitation effects could be reproduced if the model included an inhibitory mechanism that adjusted the amount of motor inhibition according to the number of observed actions.
“The results revealed that all four effects could be reproduced provided that the model was extended with an inhibitory mechanism regulating the amount of motor inhibition based on the number of observed actions.”
From Automatic imitation of multiple agents: A computational model (2019) · cites this paper as Cracco et al., 2015
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Holler, J., & Kuhlen, A. K. (2026) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-026-00538-1 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Concurrently observed actions are represented not as compound actions but as independent actions.
Cracco, E., Isterdael, C. V., Genschow, O., & Braß, M. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/xhp0001043 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
Self-citationSocial Modulation of Imitative Behavior
Genschow, O., & Cracco, E. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-62634-0_11 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Self-citationAnticipated imitation of multiple agents
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Self-citationChard, J., Edey, R., Yon, D., Murphy, J., Bird, G., & Press, C. (2019) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/xhp0000634 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Task co-representation of multiple co-actorsPreprint
Milward, S. J., & Sargeant, T. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/zmb2s · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Anticipated Imitation Is Not Affected by the Number of Imitators
Neszmélyi, B., & Pfister, R. (2024) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027/1618-3169/a000637 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Lamontagne, A., Legou, T., Bedossa, T., & Gaunet, F. (2024) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2024.10.033 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Pfister, R., Neszmélyi, B., & Kunde, W. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-62634-0_8 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The drawing power of crowds revisited: Evidence for a two-step model of social group influencePreprint
Cracco, E., Bernardet, U., Sevenhant, R., Vandenhouwe, N., Copman, F., Durnez, W., Bombeke, K., & Braß, M. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/pdm4b · Cited by 1 · see citing works
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Farrera, A., & Ramos‐Fernández, G. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/7cm3b · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Anticipated Action and AttentionPreprint
Genschow, O., & Groß-Bölting, J. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/5k64a
How do individuals high in psychopathic traits represent others’ beliefs and actions?Preprint
Genschow, O., Bardi, L., Rigoni, D., Uzieblo, K., & Braß, M. (2019) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2arn3
Social group membership does not modulate automatic imitation in a contrastive multi-agent paradigmPreprint
Souter, L. D., Braem, S., Genschow, O., Braß, M., & Cracco, E. (2020) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hzp2k
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Westfal, M., Crusius, J., & Genschow, O. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/bk2j4
Money priming and self-other focusPreprint
Genschow, O., Schuler, J., Cracco, E., Braß, M., & Wänke, M. (2019) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/dbqac
Self-citationAnticipated imitation of multiple agentsPreprint
Galang, C. M., Cracco, E., & Braß, M. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/f7kr4
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Lamontagne, A., & Gaunet, F. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-48449-0_4
Social Modulators of Behavioural Synchronization
Lamontagne, A., & Gaunet, F. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-48449-0_6
Automatic Imitation of Multiple Agents
Cracco, E. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-62634-0_10
Self-citationThe impact of model eyesight and social reward on automatic imitation in virtual reality.
Nevejans, M., Wiersema, J. R., Houwer, J. D., & Cracco, E. (2025) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance · doi:10.1037/xhp0001271
Self-citation
- Authors
- Cracco, E., De Coster, L., Andres, M., & Brass, M.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance
- Published
- 2015
- Volume
- 41
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1488-1501
- ISSN
- 0096-1523 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1277
- OpenAlex
- W2197777997
- Cited by
- 58
- References
- 60
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 1 · 2024: 12 · 2023: 6 · 2022: 6 · 2021: 11 · 2020: 4 · 2019: 6 · 2018: 4 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 2
- FWCI
- 6.01
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- hdl.handle.net
- Licence
- other-oa
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Human Perception & Performance (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Ghent University Academic Bibliography (Ghent University) (submittedVersion)
- Digital Access to Libraries (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Research Foundation Flanders (FWO14/ASP/050, FWO10/ASP/321)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Action Observation and Synchronization
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Social Robot Interaction and HRI
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
- Keywords
- automatic imitation, motor simulation, multiple actors, social interaction, ideomotor theory, attentional capture, action observation, motor system
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Attention, Belgium, Female, Humans, Imitative Behavior, Movement, Reaction Time, Young Adult
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