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Anxiety and depression as bidirectional risk factors for one another: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies.

Jacobson, Nicholas C., Newman, Michelle G.·2017·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/bul0000111

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Abstract

Not only do anxiety and depression diagnoses tend to co-occur, but their symptoms are highly correlated. Although a plethora of research has examined longitudinal associations between anxiety and depression, these data have not yet been effectively synthesized. To address this need, the current study undertook a systematic review and meta-analysis of 66 studies involving 88,336 persons examining the prospective relationship between anxiety and depression at both symptom and disorder levels. Using mixed-effect models, results suggested that all types of anxiety symptoms predicted later depressive symptoms (r = .34), and all types of depressive symptoms predicted later anxiety symptoms (r = .31). Although anxiety symptoms more strongly predicted depressive symptoms than vice versa, the difference in effect size for this analysis was very small and likely not clinically meaningful. Additionally, all types of diagnosed anxiety disorders predicted all types of later depressive disorders (OR = 2.77), and all depressive disorders predicted later anxiety disorders (OR = 2.73). Most anxiety and depressive disorders predicted each other with similar degrees of strength, but depressive disorders more strongly predicted social anxiety disorder (OR = 6.05) and specific phobia (OR = 2.93) than vice versa. Contrary to conclusions of prior reviews, our findings suggest that depressive disorders may be prodromes for social and specific phobia, whereas other anxiety and depressive disorders are bidirectional risk factors for one another. (PsycINFO Database Record

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“…for GAD on depressive symptoms have also been previously reported (Carl et al., 2020; Cuijpers et al., 2016) and are encouraging considering frequent comorbidity between MDD and GAD and close associations between anxiety and depressive symptoms (Jacobson & Newman, 2017; Moffitt et al., 2007).”
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Authors: Jacobson, N. C., & Newman, M. G.
Affiliations: Pennsylvania State University (US)
ORCID: Jacobson, Nicholas C.
Newman, Michelle G.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2017-11
Volume: 143
Issue: 11
Pages: 1155-1200
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/bul0000111
OpenAlex: W2747576011
Cited by: 576
References: 806
Citations by year: 2026: 73 · 2025: 95 · 2024: 68 · 2023: 104 · 2022: 90 · 2021: 60 · 2020: 40 · 2019: 26 · 2018: 18 · 2017: 2
FWCI: 3.74
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Keywords: anxiety, depression, comorbidities, anxiety disorders, depressive disorders, social anxiety disorder, specific phobia, longitudinal associations, prodromal symptoms
MeSH terms: Anxiety, Anxiety Disorders, Depression, Depressive Disorder, Humans, Longitudinal Studies

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Anxiety and depression as bidirectional risk factors for one another: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies.

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