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Group inhibition of bystander intervention in emergencies.
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“Interestingly, the response time for intervention in the three naive subjects case was considerably longer than the single subject case, indicating 1) that individuals in groups did pay heed to social proof before acting, and 2) that in many cases (38%), social proof from only two peers was not enough to preclude intervention.”
From Pluralistic ignorance in the bystander effect: informational dynamics of unresponsive witnesses in situations calling for intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Latané and Darley, 1968
In the citing paper
“With 2 confederates in the room, only 1 in 10 naive subjects intervened.”
From Pluralistic ignorance in the bystander effect: informational dynamics of unresponsive witnesses in situations calling for intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Latané and Darley, 1968
In the citing paper
“The classic 'smoky room' experiment of (Latané and Darley, 1968), specifically designed to test the hypothesis of the second step of the explanation of the bystander effect (see p. 2), has served as a strong guide for the construction of the models, and provides data which allows the rejection of three of them.”
From Pluralistic ignorance in the bystander effect: informational dynamics of unresponsive witnesses in situations calling for intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Latané and Darley, 1968
In the citing paper
“[m]ost emergencies are, or at least begin as, ambiguous events”
From Pluralistic ignorance in the bystander effect: informational dynamics of unresponsive witnesses in situations calling for intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Latané and Darley, 1968
In the citing paper
“but only 38% of the 8 groups did so.”
From Pluralistic ignorance in the bystander effect: informational dynamics of unresponsive witnesses in situations calling for intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Latané and Darley, 1968
In the citing paper
“Of the subjects that were alone, 75% reported the smoke, a number high enough to warrant the rejection of the City Dweller model, which would have it that all evade.”
From Pluralistic ignorance in the bystander effect: informational dynamics of unresponsive witnesses in situations calling for intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Latané and Darley, 1968
In the citing paper
“As the possible accident will have dire consequences for the subjects themselves, the experimenters assumed that no diffusion of responsibility arose.”
From Pluralistic ignorance in the bystander effect: informational dynamics of unresponsive witnesses in situations calling for intervention (2014) · cites this paper as Latané and Darley, 1968
Citations
Cites
Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility.
Darley, J. M., & Latane, B. (1968) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0025589 · Cited by 3,083
Self-citationGoffman, E. (1963) · Cited by 2,151
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Gregariousness and fear in laboratory rats
Latané, B. (1969) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/0022-1031(69)90006-7 · Cited by 169
Social and nonsocial attraction in rats.
Latané, B., & Glass, D. C. (1968) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0025843 · Cited by 90
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Alcohol’s Effects on the Bystander Decision-Making Model: A Systematic Literature Review
Marcantonio, T. L., Haikalis, M., Misquith, C., & Leone, R. M. (2023) · The Journal of Sex Research · doi:10.1080/00224499.2023.2267547 · Cited by 10
“Bystander intervention is grounded in the Bystander Decision-Making Model that suggests people move through five steps prior to intervention (Latane & Darley, 1968).”
BackgroundMethodKimura, K., & Katayama, J. (2015) · International Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2015.12.005 · Cited by 10
Borsky, A. E., McDonnell, K. A., Rimal, R. N., & Turner, M. M. (2016) · Violence and Victims · doi:10.1891/0886-6708.vv-d-13-00196 · Cited by 10
“These studies have found that the presence of others in an emergency situation will reduce the likelihood that an individual will intervene in an emergency; this is known as the diffusion of responsibility (Darley, 1968; Latane & Darley, 1968).”
BackgroundMiller, C. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199674350.003.0002 · Cited by 10
Khalemsky, M., Schwartz, D. G., Silberg, T., Khalemsky, A., Jaffe, E., & Herbst, R. (2019) · JMIR mhealth and uhealth · doi:10.2196/13892 · Cited by 10
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“The likelihood of showing prosocial behavior depends on both individual characteristics (as high levels of self-esteem) and situational factors (for example, the number of people that are observing a scene) [13,14].”
BackgroundKim, Y. (2021) · Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS) · doi:10.24251/hicss.2021.357 · Cited by 11
“an emergency could reduce the likelihood that any given person would take any intervening action [13, 14].”
BackgroundGill, H., & Rojas, H. (2021) · Communication Studies · doi:10.1080/10510974.2021.1899008 · Cited by 15
“Studies on bystander effect (Garcia et al., 2002; Latane & Darley, 1968), on the other hand, have shown that the (perceived) presence of others responding to a situation can lead an observer to feel less responsible to take actions, and that “free riding” may increase with group size (Voelpel et…”
BackgroundMoral affordance, moral expertise, and virtue
Hampson, P. J., Hulsey, T. L., & McGarry, P. P. (2021) · Theory & Psychology · doi:10.1177/09593543211021662 · Cited by 10
“For example, in one of the first bystander effect experiments (Latané & Darley, 1968), participants failed to help someone in need not because they didn’t care, but because they failed to recognize the situation as an emergency.”
BackgroundSociety of Fire Protection Engineers (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-94697-9_3 · Cited by 10
Byrne, M. H. V., Ashcroft, J., Wan, J. C. M., Alexander, L., Harvey, A., Arora, A., Schindler, N., Brown, M. E. L., & Brassett, C. (2023) · Postgraduate Medical Journal · doi:10.1093/postmj/qgad015 · Cited by 10
Martelaro, N., Ganguly, S., Steinert, M., & Jung, M. F. (2014) · Understanding innovation · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-06823-7_4 · Cited by 10
D’Antonio, J. (2013) · International Review on Public and Nonprofit Marketing · doi:10.1007/s12208-013-0104-x · Cited by 10
“The prosocial responses and behaviors of both individuals and groups have been observed under various simulated emergency conditions, including witnessing an epileptic seizure, being in a room that suddenly fills up with smoke, and hearing a loud noise (Darley and Latané 1968; Darley et al. 1973; Latané and Darley 196…”
BackgroundEncouraging bystanders to help in stopping violence against children
Cismaru, M. (2012) · International Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing · doi:10.1002/nvsm.1451 · Cited by 10
Organizational bystanding: whistleblowing, watching the work go by or aiding and abetting?
Linstead, S. A. (2013) · M n gement · doi:10.3917/mana.165.0680 · Cited by 10
“Darley and Latané (1968a, 1968b, 1969; Latané and Darley 1968, 1970) attempted an analysis of how the bystanders accounted for their non-intervention, although there was some controversy arising from the original newspaper report as to how many of the 38 could hear or see the events sufficiently…”
BackgroundDoes knowledge matter? Psychological information and bystander helping.
Rayko, D. S. (1977) · Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement · doi:10.1037/h0081634 · Cited by 11
Behavioral Legal EthicsPreprint
Robbennolt, J. K., & Sternlight, J. R. (2013) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2248137 · Cited by 10
Appeal to Bystander Interventions: A Normative Approach to Health and Risk Messaging
Burn, S. M. (2017) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.242 · Cited by 15
Au‐Yeung, T. S. H., Philpot, R., Stott, C., Radburn, M., & Drury, J. (2023) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12703 · Cited by 11
“…in the introduction, classical models of crowd and bystander behaviour suggest that in public emergencies of this kind, people will be either uniformly apathetic and self-interested or behave irrationally when faced with threat (Darley & Latané, 1968; Latané & Darley, 1968; Le Bon, 1926 [1895]).”
BackgroundBanyard, V. L., Edwards, K. M., Greenberg, P. J., Waterman, E. A., Jones, L. M., & Mitchell, K. J. (2021) · Journal of School Violence · doi:10.1080/15388220.2021.2013249 · Cited by 9
“Latane and Darley (1968) described the bystander effect as one in which individuals stand by and do nothing because of the diffusion of responsibility created when many people are present.”
BackgroundVisualizing Targeted Audiences
Savage, S., Forbes, A. G., Toxtli, C., McKenzie, G., Desai, S., & Höllerer, T. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-06498-7_2 · Cited by 9
“Communication research has found that online users receive fewer replies when they share content with their entire network than they would if they share it instead with a small targeted audience [5, 17].”
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Tseng, S., Chen, C.-K., Yu, J., & Wang, Y.-C. (2014) · SIMULATION · doi:10.1177/0037549714524452 · Cited by 9
“The relationship between the victim’s intention to report the incident and the percentage of incidents that are actually reported is positive, and this influence is nonlinear.(4) In addition, the influence of and the interaction with other people is very important when bullying occurs and can help the victim find the…”
BackgroundExtended Virtues and the Boundaries of Persons
Howell, R. J. (2016) · Journal of the American Philosophical Association · doi:10.1017/apa.2016.5 · Cited by 10
“Latan´e and Darley ( 1968 ) describe an experiment of releasing acrid smoke from a vent into a room where undergraduate subjects were filling out forms.”
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“In contrast, one can expect prompt service where there is bribery [20].”
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Shivers-Williams, C. A., & Klockow-McClain, K. E. (2020) · Natural Hazards · doi:10.1007/s11069-020-04400-2 · Cited by 9
“For example, psychologists have found that bystanders, in both emergency and non-emergency situations, are less likely to help a person in need as the number of other onlookers increases (e.g., Darley and Latané 1968; Latané and Darley 1968).”
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“Research on bystander intervention, for example, has shown that a person in need is more likely to receive help when there is a single witness as opposed to multiple witnesses to his or her plight (e.g., Latané and Darley 1968).”
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Pandey, J., & Griffitt, W. B. (1977) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.1977.tb00594.x · Cited by 9
Effects of Third Party Intercession on Bystander Intervention
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Synnott, K. (2017) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2894972 · Cited by 9
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“The anonymity within settings could reduce bystanders’ sense of personal responsibility, and they might therefore not feel pressure to act when they see behavior they find unacceptable (see Latané & Darley, 1968).”
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“Human vision-related studies regarding evacuations have mainly been conducted under the following two contexts: the identification of visual evacuation signs [2, 11, 15, 29, 38] and evacuation behaviors under limited visibilities [27, 28, 39].”
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“Keywords: bystander effect, helping behavior, video games THE BYSTANDER EFFECT IS THE PHENOMENON that individuals are less likely to help someone in need when in the presence of others (Latané & Darley, 1968).”
BackgroundThe legacy of the 38 witnesses and the importance of getting history right.
Manning, R., Levine, M., & Collins, A. F. (2008) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.63.6.562 · Cited by 8
“Much of the substance of our article was devoted to showing how Latané and Darley (1968, 1970) in particular enrolled the negative figure of the group into the study of bystander behavior when it is not clear that, in the story of the 38 witnesses, there was much about the bystanders that can be…”
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“In another classic example, research by Darley and Latane (1968; see also Latane and Darley 1968) deceived participants about emergency situations and examined bystander intervention and factors that influence willingness to help others.”
MethodLending sociodynamics and economic instability
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“One type of barrier is situational; rather than being indifferent to the victim’s plight, bystanders respond to other observers and the group context within which the emergency or violence occurs (Latane and Darley 1968).”
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The Image of the Police in Israel
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“Meanwhile, a second research assistant who was out of sight in a corridor outside the apartment activated a recording of a fire alarm (110-dB sound) one minute into the experiment (a procedure that paraphrase that of Darley & Latane, 1968; Latane & Darley, 1968) to produce ambiguous cues of fire.”
MethodThe Helping Behavior Motivation in the Context of Everyday and Professional Help
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“Substantial research supports the idea that the fewer bystanders who observe an incident, the greater the likelihood that a bystander will intervene (e.g., Latane & Darley, 1968).”
BackgroundMaran, D. A., Zedda, M., & Varetto, A. (2021) · Journal of Workplace Behavioral Health · doi:10.1080/15555240.2021.1877554 · Cited by 8
“The decision to intervene or to not intervene in witnesses of violent behavior was explained by Latane and Darley (1968).”
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“The psychological literature has found that moral responsibility is shared among groups and that this responsibility diminishes as the size of groups increases [33,34].”
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“When in the presence of others, the responsibility of intervening becomes shared, with individuals often assuming another bystander will help, reducing the likelihood they intervene themselves (Latane & Darley, 1968).”
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“In other words, the bystander effect refers to the reduced likelihood of an individual intervening in a situation as the number of people nearby increases (Latané & Darley, 1968, 1970; Latané & Nida, 1981).”
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“(Latané and Darley 1968: 219) What is striking about this particular case is that, according to the experimenters, all of the subjects who failed to report the smoke interpreted the situation in a similar fashion: as something not dangerous.”
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“Results lend further support for the theory of bystander behavior (Latané & Darley, 1968) and suggest that the bystander model holds among college student drinking gamers, a group that has not previously been examined.”
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“In contrast, in more extensive groups, behaviour indicative of deindividuation, a lack of personal responsibility, and the bystander effect [55] were common.”
Joyal‐Desmarais, K., Euh, H., Scharmer, A., & Snyder, M. (2024) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.3110 · Cited by 6
Liu, Y.-L., Jian, T.-E., & Wang, C.-Y. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2025.100596 · Cited by 6
Sparkman, G., & Hoffmann, T. (2025) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2025.101570 · Cited by 7
Is or ought? Reactions to violations help children to distinguish norms and regularities
Riggs, A. E. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104822 · Cited by 6
Pagani, S., Hunter, S. C., & Elliott, M. A. (2022) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12534 · Cited by 6
Casper, D. M., Witte, T. H., Gibson, E., & McCulley, E. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605221092071 · Cited by 6
Who Helps Who? The Role of Stigma Dimensions in Harassment Intervention
Ghumman, S. S., Ryan, A. M., & Park, J. S. (2023) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-022-05307-7 · Cited by 6
“…by perceptions of what types of actions are required, situational ambiguity, group size, and personal responsibility, whereas choosing how much to intervene and when to intervene can depend on the urgency of situation and the costs of intervening (Clark & Word, 1972; Latané & Darley, 1968).”
The Questionnaire of Intention to Help in VAW Cases (QIHVC): Development and preliminary results
Pérez, V. A. F., Sánchez-Prada, A., Fiol, E. B., Álvarez, C. D., Vázquez-González, L. I., & Nardi-Rodríguez, A. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1153678 · Cited by 6
“Four junior collaborators all of whom are trained in VAW were then selected from the research team to prepare and agree on a description for each form of violence used as a case scenario, with the following conditions: (1) the situations described had to be as real and credible as possible; (2) the types of violence d…”
BackgroundMethod
Metadata
- Authors
- Latane, B., & Darley, J. M.
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 1968
- Volume
- 10
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- 215-221
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W2029511299
- Cited by
- 1,252
- References
- 5
- Citations by year
- 2026: 45 · 2025: 33 · 2024: 40 · 2023: 47 · 2022: 58 · 2021: 71 · 2020: 62 · 2019: 77 · 2018: 55 · 2017: 54 · 2016: 59 · 2015: 69 · 2014: 45 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 43
- FWCI
- 42.69
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Psychology of Social Influence
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Evacuation and Crowd Dynamics
- Keywords
- bystander effect, emergency response, helping behavior, group size, diffusion of responsibility
- MeSH terms
- Emergencies, Fires, Group Processes
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