The effect of severity of initiation on liking for a group.

“Hypothesis 4 (H4) is that dissonance is aroused when one engages in unpleasant activity in order to obtain a desirable outcome (Aronson and Mills, 1959; Harmon-Jones and Mills, 1999; Worchel et al., 2000).”

“According to the effort justification paradigm, people value a goal more highly after expending effort to achieve it (Aronson & Mills, 1959).”

“Justification of effort occurs when there is a preference for an outcome that requires more effort to obtain over similar outcomes that require less effort [51,52].”

“…severe CONTACT Carol Ting tingyf@umac.mo University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Rm. 2058, E21, Taipa, Macau SAR © 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group initiation for admission to a group ended up having a more positive view about the group (Aronson & Mills, 1959).”

“Some examples of such behavior are the justification of effort (e.g., Aronson & Mills, 1959; Gerard & Mathewson, 1966; Norton, Mochon&Ariely, 2012), the sunk cost effect (e.g., Arkes & Blumer, 1985), and gambling.”

“(2010) Darley & Latané (1968) Aronson & Mills (1959) Dutton & Aron (1974) Asch (1946) Festinger (1954) Asch (1956) Heider (1958)** Bandura, Ross, & Ross (1961) Jones & Harris (1967) Bargh, Chen, & Burrows (1996) Milgram (1974)** Baron (1986) * Spencer, Steele, & Quinn (1999) Bornstein (1989) Steele & Aronson (1995) Bu…”

“According to the effort justification hypothesis [19] people might have logical associations or naı̈ve scripts linking effort to quality and anticipated happiness.”

“Klein, Bhatt, and Zentall (2005) conducted an experiment with a similar design but a simpler procedure than that used by Aronson and Mills (1959).”

“Previous research in social psychology suggests that individuals tend to value groups and outcomes more highly when they have invested effort in obtaining membership, a phenomenon associated with effort justification and psychological ownership [12, 13].”

“We follow the effort justification tenet of Cognitive Dissonance Theory ( Aronson & Mills, 1959 ; Harmon-Jones, Armstrong & Olson, 2018 ), which refers to the strategy of adding consonant cognitions to dissolve experienced dissonance when undertaking demanding or exhausting activities and achieving…”

“Thus, with more scars and suffering comes a deeper devotion to the craft, a real-life depiction of the severity-attraction hypothesis, a phenomenon where attraction to a group grows with the difficulty of attaining membership (Aronson and Mills 1959).”

“Dissonance arousal can be induced by an attitudebehavior inconsistency (Aronson and Mills, 1959; Beauvois and Joule, 1996; Festinger and Carlsmith, 1959; HarmonJones and Harmon-Jones, 2002; McGregor, Newby-Clark, and Zanna, 1999).”

“Empirical research confirms that behavior changes selfperceptions, which in turn affect subsequent behavior (Aronson & Carlsmith, 1963; Aronson & Mills, 1959; Festinger, 1957; Lepper, Greene, & Nisbett, 1973).”

“To assume the existence of a (desirable) media influence on society seems a necessity for journalists to justify the effort they put in their work (Aronson & Mills, 1959).”

“Por um lado, o elevado custo da prova de admissão sobrevaloriza a pertença ao grupo para eliminar a dissonância cognitiva entre o sacrifício feito e a gratificação (Aronson e Mills, 1959) e promove a dependência e identidade grupal (Keating et al., 2005).”

“To deal with this tension, life aspects that demand effort or are costly or painful tend to be seen through a more positive lens and are more highly valued (Aronson and Mills, 1959; Gerard and Mathewson, 1966; Tavris and Aronson, 2007).”

“Research supports the position that groups that impose a strenuous or dif fi cult entrance requirement are more likely to be viewed favorably (Aronson & Mills, 1959).”

“…inconsistency, either by rationalizing their behavior or by changing their subjective opinions to more closely match their behavior (Aronson, 1999; Aronson & Mills, 1959; Dickerson, Thibodeau, Aronson, & Miller, 1992; Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959; Gonzales, Aronson, & Costanzo, 1988; Harmon-Jones…”

“…a theory that led to an array of experimental findings that were startling at the time; e.g.. that people come to love things for which they suffer (Aronson & Mills, 1959) and that people come to believe lies they've told for small rewards but not for large rewards (Festinger & Carlsmith, 1959).”

“Rather than varying the amount of effort invested (e.g., Aronson & Mills, 1959 ), we held invested effort con - stant and examined how option-presentation order influ - ences beliefs about how well the effort was spent.”

“…dissonance reduction (i.e., effort justification) to alleviate the psychological discomfort resulting from having engaged in unpleasant effort (Aronson & Mills, 1959) or via the psychological contrast between the aversive state elicited by effort expenditure and the reward that follows…”

“Moreover, cognitive dissonance (Aronson and Mills 1959, Harmon-Jones and Mills 1999) and psychological contrast (Zen-tall 2010) accounts of effort suggest that aversive states elicited by the exertion of effort make the end-result or reward appear more valuable.”

“…achievements over those obtained effortlessly, suggesting that the very act of overcoming pain and effort imbues achievements with added meaning and value (Kaufman 1999; Loewenstein 1987; Loewenstein and Issacharoff 1994; Aronson and Mills 1959; Festinger 1962; Van Boven and Gilovich 2003).”

“60 Therefore, while beliefs shape behaviour, this theory suggests that behaviour can shape beliefs, too, to maintain consistency.”

“Although Aronson and Mills (1959) rightly observe that institutions are organic, this should be interpreted with some level of reservation.”

“Aronson and Mills (1959) stated that people who have went under severe initiation for a task, are more inclined towards joining that particular group.”

“…termes de double soumission forcée (Azdia & Joule, 2001 ; Girandola, 1997 ; Joule, 1991), la CHAPITRE 2 – LA DISSONANCE COGNITIVE 46 justification de l‘effort (Aronson & Mills, 1959), l‘expérience du jouet interdit (Aronson & Carlsmith, 1963), ou encore à prendre une décision coûteuse (paradigme…”

“Aronson and Mills (1959) suggest Published by Sciedu Press 184 ISSN 1927-6044 E-ISSN 1927-6052 that to reduce cognitive dissonance, an individual may distort perceptions in a positive manner.”

“When he or she invests in becoming a member of this community, this individual is inclined to have a right to belong to the community [19-20].”

“…that cohesiveness is a positive trait as individuals in cohesive groups enjoy belonging to the group, accept and accomplish the group’s goals, are much less absent from their jobs and have less voluntary turnover (Aronson & Mills, 1959; Cartwright, 1968; George & Bettenhausen, 1990; Long, 1984).”

“Ritva writes, “The Sages have explained a reason for this, that Satan prosecutes the one who is commanded and not the other one, and ‘according to the labor is the reward’ (Pirkei Avot 5:23)” (Al’ishbili, 1985, p. 346).”

“In two well-known demonstrations that people who go through a great deal of trouble to attain something are inclined to value it more highly than those who exert less effort, Aronson & Mills (1959) and Gerard and Mathewson (1966) showed that severity of an initiation experience tends to enhance liking of a group.”

“Research suggests that people are more committed to groups when they experience more rigorous initiation processes (Aronson & Mills, 1959) because the actions they must undertake to become part of the group build their self-Pethig esteem.”

“…and Chavis (1986), belonging in online communities can be mainly understood through membership, which includes feelings of inclusion that require personal investment to foster a sense of belonging to the community (Aronson and Mills, 1959; McMillan and Chavis, 1986; Riger and Lavrakas, 1981).”

“In another study, Aronson and Mills (1959) found that forceful socialization (e.g., hazing) leads to increased commitment.”

“…THE INTERNATIONAL HONOR SOCIETY IN PSYCHOLOGY (VOL. 19, NO. 3/ISSN 2164-8204) 117 knowledge on a specific behavior, they are less likely to behave impulsively and employ CHB. CHB use is a strategy used to reduce cognitive dissonance, and this reduction is highly motivating (Aronson & Mills, 1959).”

“Research shows that the more costly (read dangerous or expensive) the initiation, the more the individual values the membership in a particular group (Aronson & Mills, 1959; Gerard & Mathewson, 1966).”

“This finding strongly supports a cognitive dissonance account: those who find effort most aversive are most compelled to inflate the value of small rewards to justify their exertion ( Aronson and Mills, 1959 ).”