Is clinical virtual reality ready for primetime?
Abstract
OBJECTIVE: Since the mid-1990s, a significant scientific literature has evolved regarding the outcomes from the use of what we now refer to as clinical virtual reality (VR). This use of VR simulation technology has produced encouraging results when applied to address cognitive, psychological, motor, and functional impairments across a wide range of clinical health conditions. This article addresses the question, "Is clinical VR ready for primetime?" METHOD: After a brief description of the various forms of VR technology, we discuss the trajectory of clinical VR over the last 20 years and summarize the basic assets that VR offers for creating clinical applications. The discussion then addresses the question of readiness in terms of the theoretical basis for clinical VR assets, the research to date, the pragmatic factors regarding availability, usability, and costs of clinical VR content/systems, and the ethical issues for the safe use of VR with clinical populations. RESULTS: Our review of the theoretical underpinnings and research findings to date leads to the prediction that clinical VR will have a significant impact on future research and practice. Pragmatic issues that can influence adoption across many areas of psychology also appear favorable, but professional guidelines will be needed to promote its safe and ethical use. CONCLUSIONS: Although there is still much research needed to advance the science in this area, we strongly believe that clinical VR applications will become indispensable tools in the toolbox of psychological researchers and practitioners and will only grow in relevance and popularity in the future. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Exposure therapy within VR has shown promising results in treating various mental health conditions.
“Exposure therapy within VR has shown promising results in treating various mental health conditions.”
From A systematic review on the efficacy of virtual reality and gamification interventions for managing anxiety and depression (2023) · cites this paper as [26]
VR exposure therapy has been particularly effective in treating phobias and post-traumatic stress disorder.
“It has been particularly effective in treating phobias and post-traumatic stress disorder (26).”
From A systematic review on the efficacy of virtual reality and gamification interventions for managing anxiety and depression (2023) · cites this paper as [26]
VR creates immersive and interactive environments that allow individuals to confront anxiety-inducing situations in a safe and controlled manner.
“VR creates immersive and interactive environments that allow individuals to confront anxiety-inducing situations in a safe and controlled manner (26).”
From A systematic review on the efficacy of virtual reality and gamification interventions for managing anxiety and depression (2023) · cites this paper as [26]
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Saredakis, D., Szpak, A., Birckhead, B. J., Keage, H. A. D., Rizzo, A., & Loetscher, T. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.00096 · Cited by 741 · see citing works
“, 2019), as well as in cases where headmovement in a fixed position is concordant with what the user would experience in the real world (Rizzo and Koenig, 2017).”
BackgroundVirtual reality in cognitive and motor rehabilitation: facts, fiction and fallacies
Tieri, G., Morone, G., Paolucci, S., & Iosa, M. (2018) · Expert Review of Medical Devices · doi:10.1080/17434440.2018.1425613 · Cited by 457 · see citing works
Reporting Mental Health Symptoms: Breaking Down Barriers to Care with Virtual Human Interviewers
Lucas, G. M., Rizzo, A., Gratch, J., Scherer, S., Stratou, G., Boberg, J., & Morency, L.-P. (2017) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2017.00051 · Cited by 308 · see citing works
Self-citationClinical Virtual Reality tools to advance the prevention, assessment, and treatment of PTSD
Rizzo, A. ‘., & Shilling, R. (2017) · European Journal of Psychotraumatology · doi:10.1080/20008198.2017.1414560 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Garcia‐Romeu, A., & Richards, W. A. (2018) · International Review of Psychiatry · doi:10.1080/09540261.2018.1486289 · Cited by 191 · see citing works
“…reality (VR) technology and related therapeutic interventions represent another area that may be well augmented by administration of psychedelics (Chirico, Yaden, Riva, & Gaggioli, 2016; Riva, 2005; Riva, Ba~nos, Botella, Mantovani, & Gaggioli, 2016; Rizzo & Koenig, 2017; Rothbaum et al., 2014).”
BackgroundImmersive virtual reality health games: a narrative review of game design
Tao, G., Garrett, B., Taverner, T., Cordingley, E., & Sun, C. (2021) · Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s12984-020-00801-3 · Cited by 189 · see citing works
A Review of Telepresence, Virtual Reality, and Augmented Reality Applied to Clinical Care
Hilty, D. M., Randhawa, K., Maheu, M. M., McKean, A. J. S., Pantera, R. L., Mishkind, M. C., & Rizzo, A. (2020) · Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s41347-020-00126-x · Cited by 146 · see citing works
“After starting with phobia and cognitive rehabilitation in the 1990s (Rizzo & Koenig, 2017), this research has spread from social neuroscience (Parsons et al. 2017), cognitive neuroscience (Riva 1998), the military (e.g., Army) (Witmer and Singer 1998), communication (Lombard and Ditton 1997),…”
BackgroundScholten, H., & Granic, I. (2019) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/11528 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
A SWOT Analysis of the Field of Virtual Reality for Firefighter Training
Engelbrecht, H., Lindeman, R. W., & Hoermann, S. (2019) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2019.00101 · Cited by 135 · see citing works
“Especially the clinical domain has seen a large variety of applications, with Rizzo and Koenig (2017) deeming VR ready for primetime.”
BackgroundChiu, P. L., Li, H., Yap, K. Y., Lam, K.-M. C., Yip, P.-L. R., & Wong, C. L. (2023) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.40588 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Virtual Reality in Neurorehabilitation: An Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses
Voinescu, A., Sui, J., & Fraser, D. S. (2021) · Journal of Clinical Medicine · doi:10.3390/jcm10071478 · Cited by 117 · see citing works
“(VEs) that closely resemble everyday environments [3].”
BackgroundCorrigan, N., Poetar, C.-R., & Voinescu, A. (2023) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-023-00768-1 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“The evidence base for the effectiveness of VR-based interventions for the treatment of ADHD symptoms in children is steadily growing (Rizzo and Koenig 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialMasurovsky, A., Chojecki, P., Runde, D., Lafci, M., Przewozny, D., & Gaebler, M. (2020) · Multimodal Technologies and Interaction · doi:10.3390/mti4040091 · Cited by 111 · see citing works
The Use of Virtual Reality in Back Pain Rehabilitation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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Tennant, M., McGillivray, J., Youssef, G. J., McCarthy, M., & Clark, T.-J. (2020) · Journal of Pediatric Oncology Nursing · doi:10.1177/1043454220917859 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Importantly, recent developments in digital technologies have created new opportunities to develop novel methods of intervention to address psychological well-being among hospitalized children, with potentially greater appeal and reach (Hollis et al., 2015; Rizzo & Koenig, 2017).”
BackgroundHøeg, E. R., Povlsen, T. M., Bruun‐Pedersen, J. R., Lange, B. S., Nilsson, N. C., Haugaard, K. B., Faber, S. M., Hansen, S. W., Kimby, C. K., & Serafin, S. (2021) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2021.647993 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
“Previous attempts have sought to delimit VR, by simply referring to devices which utilize immersive technology (Iosa et al., 2012; Rizzo and Koenig, 2017; Tieri et al., 2018).”
BackgroundColeman, B., Marion, S., Rizzo, A., Turnbull, J., & Nolty, A. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01851 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
“…medium in which to gather evidence for ecological relevance that goes beyond traditional cognitive assessment (e.g., Schultheis and Rizzo, 2001; Rizzo and Koenig, 2017), enabling researchers to observe behaviors in simulated real life settings with participants less aware of the examiner while…”
BackgroundInfluentialRousseaux, F., Bicego, A., Ledoux, D., Massion, P. B., Nyssen, A., Faymonville, M.-É., Laureys, S., & Vanhaudenhuyse, A. (2020) · Journal of Pain Research · doi:10.2147/jpr.s231737 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Guidelines for immersive virtual reality in psychological research
Vasser, M., & Aru, J. (2020) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.04.010 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Yang, X., Wu, J., Ma, Y., Yu, J., Cao, H., Zeng, A., Fu, R., Tang, Y., & Ren, Z. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/60845 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Research by Rizzo and Koenig [23] suggests that VR technology provides a highly personalized interactive environment for psychotherapy and cognitive rehabilitation, helping patients better engage in treatment.”
Kiper, P., Przysiężna, E., Cieślik, B., Broniec-Siekaniec, K., Kucińska, A., Szczygieł, J., Turek, K., Gajda, R., & Szczepańska-Gieracha, J. (2022) · Clinical Interventions in Aging · doi:10.2147/cia.s375754 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
The age of cyberpsychology: An overview.
Ancis, J. R. (2020) · Technology Mind and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000009 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“VR has the potential for addressing an even wider range of physical, emotional, social, cognitive, and psychological issues than it does currently (Rizzo & Koenig, 2017).”
BackgroundJingili, N., Oyelere, S. S., Nyström, M. B. T., & Anyshchenko, L. (2023) · Frontiers in Digital Health · doi:10.3389/fdgth.2023.1239435 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“VR creates immersive and interactive environments that allow individuals to confront anxiety-inducing situations in a safe and controlled manner (26).”
BackgroundKrohn, S., Tromp, J., Quinque, E. M., Belger, J., Klotzsche, F., Rekers, S., Chojecki, P., de Mooij, J., Akbal, M., McCall, C., et al. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/16724 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
“In addition, the evaluation of behavioral performance in classical assessment tasks usually requires time-consuming processing and examination of numeric data (eg, calculating scores), which then have to be visualized in a graph or table [1].”
BackgroundInfluentialBurke, S. L., Li, T., Grudzien, A., & Garcia, S. J. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-020-04571-8 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Kardong‐Edgren, S., Breitkreuz, K. R., Werb, M., Foreman, S. E., & Ellertson, A. (2018) · Nurse Educator · doi:10.1097/nne.0000000000000570 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Rousseaux, F., Faymonville, M.-É., Nyssen, A., Dardenne, N., Ledoux, D., Massion, P. B., & Vanhaudenhuyse, A. (2020) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-020-4222-6 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
“Presence refers to the degree to which the subject experiences being in the virtual environment [42, 43], while immersion is the amount of sensory input the VR system creates [44].”
BackgroundHuygelier, H., Schraepen, B., Lafosse, C., Vaes, N., Schillebeeckx, F., Michiels, K., Note, E., Abeele, V. V., van Ee, R., & Gillebert, C. (2020) · Applied neuropsychology. Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2020.1821030 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Lim, H. K., Ji, K., Woo, Y. S., Han, D.-U., Lee, D., Nam, S. G., & Jang, K.-M. (2020) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135589 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
Boyd, L. E., Gupta, S., Vikmani, S. B., Gutierrez, C. M., Yang, J., Linstead, E. J., & Hayes, G. R. (2018) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3173574.3173778 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Virtual reality: a use case for criminal justice practice
Cornet, L. J. M., & van Gelder, J. (2020) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2019.1708357 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“These unique aspects of VR might reduce avoidance and lower the threshold for patients to seek help (see also Rizzo & Koenig, 2017).”
BackgroundVirtual reality technology in neuropsychological testing: A systematic review
Pieri, L., Tosi, G., & Romano, D. (2023) · Journal of Neuropsychology · doi:10.1111/jnp.12304 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
Chung, O. S., Robinson, T., Johnson, A. M., Dowling, N. L., Ng, C. H., Yücel, M., & Segrave, R. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.791123 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
“, “being there”) and embodiment of a virtual body, which can be exploited to enhance traditional psychological treatment by providing safe, ecologically valid virtual environments to modify maladaptive thoughts, behaviours and internal body representations (3, 4).”
BackgroundModal and amodal cognition: an overarching principle in various domains of psychology
Kaup, B., Ulrich, R., Bausenhart, K. M., Bryce, D., Butz, M. V., Dignath, D., Dudschig, C., Franz, V. H., Friedrich, C. K., Gawrilow, C., et al. (2023) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-023-01878-w · Cited by 64 · see citing works
“Furthermore, the development of VR applications is also considered a promising tool with increasing potential for the treatment of mental disorders (Freeman et al., 2017; Rizzo & Koenig, 2017).”
MethodParticipatory Design of VR Scenarios for Exposure Therapy
Flobak, E., Wake, J. D., Vindenes, J., Kahlon, S., Nordgreen, T., & Guribye, F. (2019) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3290605.3300799 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
“Therefore, consumer-grade HMDs are expected to change the design and use of VR for psychological treatment [22, 31].”
BackgroundExamining the potential of virtual reality to deliver remote rehabilitation
Pedram, S., Palmisano, S. A., Perez, P., Mursic, R. A., & Farrelly, M. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.106223 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
The Effects of Virtual Audience Size on Social Anxiety during Public Speaking
Mostajeran, F., Balci, M. B., Steinicke, F., Kühn, S., & Gallinat, J. (2020) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces (VR) · doi:10.1109/vr46266.2020.00050 · Cited by 53 · see citing works
Voinescu, A., Petrini, K., Fraser, D. S., Lazarovicz, R.-A., Papavă, I., Fodor, L. A., & David, D. (2021) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-021-00520-7 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Extended Reality for Enhanced Telehealth During and Beyond COVID-19: Viewpoint
Ong, T., Wilczewski, H., Paige, S. R., Soni, H., Welch, B. M., & Bunnell, B. E. (2021) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/26520 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
“Trends in home computing and entertainment made user-friendly, robust, and polished XR equipment available for personal ownership in the 2010s, which facilitated the rapid growth in XR telehealth research and development [37].”
BackgroundBrown, T., Nauman Vogel, E., Adler, S., Bohon, C., Bullock, K., Nameth, K., Riva, G., Safer, D. L., & Runfola, C. D. (2020) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/16386 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
“Historically, across disorders, implementation of VR in treatment was limited by the cost of technology and concerns about acceptability (eg, motion sickness experienced by a high percentage of participants) [57,58].”
BackgroundFregna, G., Schincaglia, N., Baroni, A. V., Straudi, S., & Casile, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2022.906424 · Cited by 48 · see citing works
“…patients undergoing immersive VR-based upper limb motor rehabilitation exhibited a significant increase in FuglMayer score and neural activity in brain areas, particularly those implicated in mirror neurons (Rizzolatti et al., 2014; Casile, 2022), compared to a control group (Mekbib et al., 2021).”
BackgroundVoinescu, A., Morgan, P. L., Alford, C., & Caleb-Solly, P. (2020) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2020.05.003 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Technology and Mental Health: State of the Art for Assessment and Treatment
Harvey, P. D., Depp, C. A., Rizzo, A., Strauss, G. P., Spelber, D., Carpenter, L. L., Kalin, N. H., Krystal, J. H., McDonald, W. M., Nemeroff, C. B., et al. (2022) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.21121254 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Causal Inference in Generalizable Environments: Systematic Representative Design
Miller, L. C., Shaikh, S. J., Jeong, D. C., Wang, L., Gillig, T. K., Godoy, C. G., Appleby, P. R., Corsbie-Massay, C. L., Marsella, S., Christensen, J. L., et al. (2019) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2019.1693866 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
“…review articles of the use of VR demonstrates the potential for VR in diagnosis and treatment (Riva, Wiederhold, & Mantovani, 2019), including the diagnosis and reduction of the effects of PTSD and sexual violence (e.g., Rizzo et al., 2014; Rizzo & Koenig, 2017; Rothbaum, Rizzo, & Difede, 2010).”
BackgroundInfluentialVirtual Reality Technology in Cognitive Rehabilitation Application: Bibliometric Analysis
He, D., Cao, S., Le, Y., Wang, M., Chen, Y., & Qian, B. (2022) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/38315 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Spiegel, B. M. R., Rizzo, A., Persky, S., Liran, O., Wiederhold, B. K., Woods, S. S., Donovan, K., Sarkar, K., Xiang, H., Ahn, S. J., et al. (2024) · Journal of Medical Extended Reality · doi:10.1089/jmxr.2023.0012 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Clinical Results Using Virtual Reality
Rizzo, A., Koenig, S. T., & Talbot, T. B. (2019) · Journal of Technology in Human Services · doi:10.1080/15228835.2019.1604292 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
“…et al., 2017; Hoffman et al., 2011; Howard, 2017; Maples-Keller, Bunnell, Kim, & Rothbaum, 2017; Morina, Ijntema, Meyerbr e Oker, & Emmelkamp, 2015; Rizzo et al., 2015; Rizzo et al., 2015; Rizzo & Koenig, 2017; Rizzo & Shilling, 2017; Rose, Brooks, & Rizzo, 2005; Slater & Sanchez-Vives, 2016).”
MethodInfluentialClinical Virtual Reality: Emerging Opportunities for Psychiatry
Rizzo, A., Koenig, S. T., & Talbot, T. B. (2018) · FOCUS The Journal of Lifelong Learning in Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/appi.focus.20180011 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Virtual reality expands the toolkit for conducting health psychology research
Martingano, A. J., & Persky, S. (2021) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12606 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Sánchez-Cabrero, R., Costa-Román, Ó., Gómez, F. J. P., López, M. Á. N., Arigita-García, A., & Barrientos-Fernández, A. (2019) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01338 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“The use of video games is not considered virtual reality either, even though several studies from the 90s referred to it with experiences that did not fulfil minimum requirements (Rizzo and Koenig, 2017).”
BackgroundVaezipour, A., Aldridge, D., Koenig, S. T., Theodoros, D., & Russell, T. G. (2021) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2021.1895333 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“The use of Virtual Reality (VR) in rehabilitation is rapidly expanding and set to become an integral part of clinical assessment and rehabilitation in the future [13,14].”
MethodGuan, H., Xu, Y., & Zhao, D. (2022) · Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine · doi:10.1155/2022/1373170 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“To date, VR has successfully been applied in many clinical settings [1], such as helping to treat anxiety disorders [37, 38], alleviating fear [39], managing pain [33, 34, 40], supporting physical recovery [41], and preventing falls in elderly individuals [42].”
BackgroundVirtual Reality Applications for the Assessment and Treatment of PTSD
Rizzo, A., Roy, M. J., Hartholt, A., Costanzo, M. E., Highland, K. B., Jovanović, T., Norrholm, S. D., Reist, C., ROTHBAUM, B. O., & Difede, J. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-66192-6_27 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Virtual Trauma Interventions for the Treatment of Post-traumatic Stress Disorders: A Scoping Review
Knaust, T., Felnhofer, A., Kothgassner, O. D., Höllmer, H., Gorzka, R.-J., & Schulz, H. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.562506 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
“VRET uses HMD to offer a multi-sensory, anxiety-provoking, and traumaspecific virtual environment, which can be adjusted individually to the patients’ own traumatic experience by adding or removing trauma-specific stimuli, leading to a controllable, repeatable, and emotionally engaging virtual trauma environment (Leam…”
BackgroundVirtual Reality Technology in Nursing Professional Skills Training: Bibliometric Analysis
Hong, C., & Wang, L. (2023) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/44766 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Shaigetz, V. G., Proulx, C., Cabral, A., Choudhury, N., Hewko, M. D., Kohlenberg, E. M., Segado, M., Smith, M. S. D., & Debergue, P. (2021) · JMIR Rehabilitation and Assistive Technologies · doi:10.2196/26629 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“Moreover, in an extensive review describing the status of clinical VR, Rizzo et al indicate that studies on the use of VR for cognitive assessment have demonstrated construct validity and discrimination of clinical groups from healthy controls, while VR cognitive rehabilitation studies, though promising, have produced…”
BackgroundDevelopment of a Search Task Using Immersive Virtual Reality: Proof-of-Concept Study
Knobel, S. E. J., Kaufmann, B. C., Gerber, S. M., Urwyler, P., Cazzoli, D., Müri, R. M., Nef, T., & Nyffeler, T. (2021) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/29182 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
360° Videos for Immersive Mental Health Interventions: a Systematic Review
Ionescu, A., Daele, T. V., Rizzo, A., Blair, C., & Best, P. (2021) · Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s41347-021-00221-7 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
“It furthermore also has important advantages over in-vivo exposure, such as context controllability or convenience (Parsons & Rizzo, 2008; Rizzo & Koenig, 2017).”
BackgroundChaby, L., Benamara, A., Pino, M., Prigent, E., Ravenet, B., Martin, J., Vanderstichel, H., Becerril-Ortega, R., Rigaud, A., & Chétouani, M. (2022) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2022.827312 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
“…reality ’ (VR), which has developed extensively over the last 2 decades in the fi eld of healthcare, refers to a computer-screen-based simulation that offers a multisensory and immersive interactive experience in a safe environment (Mantovani et al., 2003; Rizzo et al., 2017; Riva and Serino, 2020).”
Beverly, E. A., Love, C., Love, M., Williams, E. R., & Bowditch, J. (2020) · JMIR Diabetes · doi:10.2196/23708 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
“Advances in virtual reality technologies can now support the creation of low-cost, yet sophisticated, immersive simulations, capable of running on consumer-level computing devices [31].”
BackgroundChung, O. S., Johnson, A. M., Dowling, N. L., Robinson, T., Ng, C. H., Yücel, M., & Segrave, R. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.792663 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Shiner, C. T., Croker, G., McGhee, J. B., & Faux, S. G. (2024) · BMC Digital Health · doi:10.1186/s44247-024-00076-x · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“The potential utility of VR within healthcare has been a subject of growing interest, evidenced by rapid expansion of published literature over recent years [2, 10–12].”
BackgroundVirtual Reality for Criminologists: A Road Map
van Gelder, J.-L. (2023) · Crime and Justice · doi:10.1086/726691 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
“In other words, the viewing experience in VR corresponds with what a user would see (and possibly hear and feel) if the scene were real (Rizzo and Koenig 2017).”
BackgroundMultimodal immersive trail making-virtual reality paradigm to study cognitive-motor interactions
Plotnik, M., Ben‐Gal, O., Doniger, G. M., Gottlieb, A., Bahat, Y., Cohen, M., Kimel-Naor, S., Zeilig, G., & Beeri, M. S. (2021) · Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s12984-021-00849-9 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
“In addition to its continued popularity for entertainment, VR is now being applied in a variety of ‘serious’ contexts, ranging from surgical simulation to the study of human performance and psychological function (29, 30).”
BackgroundVankov, D., & Jankovszky, D. (2021) · Virtual Reality & Intelligent Hardware · doi:10.1016/j.vrih.2021.05.005 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Virtual Reality and Correctional Rehabilitation: A Game Changer
Ticknor, B. (2019) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854819842588 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“Using a virtual simulation during treatment does appear to increase the patients’ motivation, ability to generalize what they have learned to the real world, and treatment outcomes (Rizzo & koenig, 2017).”
BackgroundKakoschke, N., Page, R., de Courten, B. V., Verdejo‐García, A., & McCormack, J. (2021) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2021.102626 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Psychiatric interventions in virtual reality: why we need an ethical framework
MARLOTH, M., CHANDLER, J., & VOGELEY, K. (2020) · Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics · doi:10.1017/s0963180120000328 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Schütz, A., Kurz, K., & Busch, G. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0261248 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“It can be defined as a highly developed type of human-computer interaction that allows users to interact with the computer in a more natural way compared to standard computer devices [20].”
BackgroundThe Symbiosis of Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy and Telemental Health: A Review
Ong, T., Wilczewski, H., Soni, H., Nisbet, Q., Paige, S. R., Barrera, J. F., Welch, B. M., & Bunnell, B. E. (2022) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2022.848066 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“Despite its benefits, mental health providers have not yet embraced VRET for widespread use (Rizzo and Koenig, 2017).”
BackgroundReporting the early stage clinical evaluation of virtual-reality-based intervention trials: RATE-VR
Vlake, J. H., van Bommel, J., Riva, G., Wiederhold, B. K., Cipresso, P., Rizzo, A., Botella, C., Hooft, L., Bienvenu, O. J., Geerts, B. F., et al. (2022) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-022-02085-7 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
Yu, C., Wang, C., Xie, Q., & Wang, C. (2024) · JMIR Serious Games · doi:10.2196/56918 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Wei, X., Huang, C. K., Ding, X., Zhou, Z., Zhang, Y., Feng, X., Zheng, S., Li, T., & Lü, J. (2025) · Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1186/s12984-025-01675-z · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“VR accelerates therapeutic gains through neuroplastic reorganization— functional MRI studies confirm strengthened connectivity between prefrontal cortices and supplementary motor areas post-VR training [87].”
Breitkreuz, K. R., Kardong‐Edgren, S., Gilbert, G. E., Anderson, P., DeBlieck, C. J., Maske, M., Hallock, C., Lanzara, S., Parrish, K., Rossler, K. L., et al. (2021) · Clinical Simulation in Nursing · doi:10.1016/j.ecns.2020.10.003 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Vlake, J. H., Drop, D. L. Q., van Bommel, J., Riva, G., Wiederhold, B. K., Cipresso, P., Rizzo, A., ROTHBAUM, B. O., Botella, C., Hooft, L., et al. (2024) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/56790 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
“This approach should encompass technological, methodological, and safety aspects to support a more objective understanding of the validity and generalizability of findings [10].”
Høeg, E. R., Bruun‐Pedersen, J. R., & Serafin, S. (2021) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops (VRW) · doi:10.1109/vrw52623.2021.00052 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Sick Moves! Motion Parameters as Indicators of Simulator Sickness
Feigl, T., Roth, D., Gradl, S., Wirth, M., Latoschik, M. E., Eskofier, B. M., Philippsen, M., & Mutschler, C. (2019) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2019.2932224 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
“Today’s VR systems support learning, narrative experiences, gaming, physical and psychological therapy, enabling users to move and navigate in the simulations using various interaction metaphors [61, 78], etc.”
BackgroundInterracial Contact in Virtual Reality: Best Practices
Taylor, V. J., Valladares, J. J., Siepser, C., & Yantis, C. (2020) · Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences · doi:10.1177/2372732220943638 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
“…VR could treat bias and racism (e.g., recognizing one’s own and others’ racist behavior, disparate treatment recommendations) with a VR version of exposure therapy or anxiety treatments (see Rizzo & Koenig, 2017; for related work on racial embodiment to counteract racism see Cogburn et al., 2018).”
BackgroundBolinski, F., Etzelmüller, A., De Witte, N. A. J., van Beurden, C., Debard, G., Bonroy, B., Cuijpers, P., Riper, H., & Kleiboer, A. (2021) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2021.103877 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Tromp, J., Klotzsche, F., Krohn, S., Akbal, M., Pohl, L., Quinque, E. M., Belger, J., Villringer, A., & Gaebler, M. (2020) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2020.611091 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“From a clinical perspective, patients can also independently practice skills in a controlled environment outside the clinic and ideally at home (Rizzo and Koenig, 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialSalagean, A., Hadnett-Hunter, J., Finnegan, D. J., de Sousa, A. A., & Proulx, M. J. (2022) · ACM Transactions on Applied Perception · doi:10.1145/3487563 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Hugh‐Jones, S., Ulor, M. N., Nugent, T., Walshe, S., & Kirk, M. (2023) · Mental Health & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.mhp.2023.200265 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Virtual reality-based gait rehabilitation intervention for stroke individuals: a scoping review
Kim, M., & Kaneko, F. (2023) · Journal of Exercise Rehabilitation · doi:10.12965/jer.2346114.057 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
“While maintaining stimulus control and consistency, the number of stimuli and the difficulty of tasks can be changed at VR to meet patients’ needs and abilities (Maier et al., 2019a; Rizzo and Koenig, 2017).”
BackgroundVirtual Reality and ADHD: Clinical Assessment and Treatment in the Metaverse
Schweitzer, J., & Rizzo, A. (2022) · The ADHD Report · doi:10.1521/adhd.2022.30.3.1 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Martínez‐Pernía, D., Olavarría, L., Fernández‐Manjón, B., Cabello, V., Henríquez, F., Robert, P. H., Alvarado, L., Barría, S., Antivilo-Bruna, A., Velásquez, J. D., et al. (2023) · Applied Neuropsychology Adult · doi:10.1080/23279095.2023.2174438 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“…has been well-received in the field of rehabilitation (Legouverneur et al., 2011; Manera et al., 2015, 2017; Mart (cid:1) ı nez-Pern (cid:1) ı a et al., 2017), as a virtual training simulator to improve real-life skills (Vallejo et al., 2017), and as a therapeutic tool to improve behavioral…”
InfluentialMental health professionals’ attitudes towards virtual reality therapies: a systematic review
Bin, S., Alrashdi, D. H., Whitehead, T., Riches, S., & Drini, E. (2025) · Journal of Technology in Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s41347-025-00499-x · Cited by 21 · see citing works
“One of the primary clinical applications is VR exposure therapy (VRET), which has been particularly valuable for trauma and stressor-related disorders, and phobias (Rizzo & Koenig, 2017).”
Bouchard, S., & Rizzo, A. (2019) · Virtual reality technologies for health and clinical applications · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-9482-3_1 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
El-Qirem, F. A., Malak, M. Z., Salameh, A. B., Ali, R., & Alsswey, A. (2022) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-022-02939-w · Cited by 21 · see citing works
Kuleli, D., Tyson, P. J., Davies, N., & Zeng, B. (2025) · Journal of Behavioral and Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.jbct.2025.100524 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Ong, T., Barrera, J. F., Sunkara, C., Soni, H., Ivanova, J., Cummins, M. R., Schuler, K. R., Wilczewski, H., Welch, B. M., & Bunnell, B. E. (2024) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2024.1332874 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Combining frontal gamma asymmetry neurofeedback with virtual reality: A proof of concept case study
Tarrant, J., & Cope, H. (2018) · NeuroRegulation · doi:10.15540/nr.5.2.57 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
“While this technology has been primarily associated with the video game industry, it is increasingly being utilized as a clinical intervention for a variety of medical and mental health concerns (Rizzo & Koenig, 2017).”
MethodDie Entwicklung virtueller Realität als Expositionsverfahren
Diemer, J., & Zwanzger, P. (2019) · Der Nervenarzt · doi:10.1007/s00115-019-0678-6 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
The study of virtual reality influence on the process of professional training of miners
Obukhov, A. D., Krasnyanskiy, M. N., Dedov, D. L., & Nazarova, A. O. (2022) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-022-00687-7 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
The ObReco-360°: a new ecological tool to memory assessment using 360° immersive technology
Pieri, L., Serino, S., Cipresso, P., Mancuso, V., Riva, G., & Pedroli, E. (2021) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-021-00526-1 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
“…of the study was based on the ongoing scientific debate concerning the ecological validity of standard paper-and-pencil tests (Chaytor and Schmitter-Edgecombe 2003; Parsons 2015) and on the evidence suggesting the implementation of VR in the neuropsychological assessment (Rizzo and Koenig 2017).”
BackgroundMethodBreuer, C., Loh, K., Leist, L., Fremerey, S., Raake, A., Klatte, M., & Fels, J. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192416569 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Giatzoglou, E., Vorias, P., Kemm, R., Karayianni, I., Nega, C., & Kourtesis, P. (2024) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app142110010 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“Additionally, VR-based tools offer a platform not only for diverse behavioral and cognitive tests but also for enhancing and measuring critical cognitive functions such as working memory, executive functioning, and behavior [11–13].”
BackgroundPreliminary Work on a Virtual Reality Interface for the Guidance of Underwater Robots
de la Cruz, M., Casañ, G. A., Sanz, P. J., & Marín, R. (2020) · Robotics · doi:10.3390/robotics9040081 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
“The clinical domain has seen a large variety of applications, like [27] and it is considered ready for general application [28].”
BackgroundHigher cognitive load interferes with head-hand coordination: virtual reality-based study
Lustig, A., Wilf, M., Dudkiewicz, I., & Plotnik, M. (2023) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-023-43337-x · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“…CTT format in addition to the growing evidence that VR-based neuropsychological tests are more predictive of ’functional behavior’ 27–29 , led us to translate and adapt the CTT task to a VR-based platform (VR-CTT) 30–32 , consequently forming a validated and better-suited…”
BackgroundŽilinský, T., & Halamová, J. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20032592 · Cited by 16 · see citing works
“This follows the observation of Rizzo and Koenig [5] that the identification of active ingredients in the use of clinical VR is still very much needed.”
BackgroundAvatar and virtual agent-assisted telecare for patients in their homes: A scoping review
Winkler, A., Kutschar, P., Pitzer, S., van der Zee‐Neuen, A., Kerner, S., Osterbrink, J., & Krutter, S. (2023) · Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare · doi:10.1177/1357633x231174484 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
“34 Though proven to be effective in many areas of mental and physical health, 35 potential side effects of virtual reality include visual asthenopia, motion sickness and dissociation.”
- Authors
- Rizzo, A. “., & Koenig, S. T.
- Affiliations
- University of Southern California (US)
- Venue
- Neuropsychology
- Published
- 2017-11
- Volume
- 31
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 877-899
- ISSN
- 0894-4105 (ISSN-L)
- 1931-1559
- OpenAlex
- W2786973165
- Cited by
- 372
- References
- 189
- Citations by year
- 2026: 60 · 2025: 78 · 2024: 49 · 2023: 41 · 2022: 26 · 2021: 39 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 27 · 2018: 15 · 2017: 5
- FWCI
- 26.73
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Neuropsychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Physiology › Simulation-Based Education in Healthcare
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Control and Systems Engineering › Simulation and Modeling Applications
- Keywords
- virtual reality simulation, technology readiness, barriers to adoption, usability, cost, ethical considerations, safety, cognitive impairment, motor impairment, functional disability, psychological rehabilitation, professional guidelines
- MeSH terms
- Virtual Reality, Feedback, Humans, Knowledge of Results, Psychological, Phobic Disorders, User-Computer Interface, Virtual Reality Exposure Therapy
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