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Cited by 162Body Image and Dysmorphia StudiesImpact of Technology on AdolescentsEating Disorders and Behaviors

The use of social networking sites, body image dissatisfaction, and body dysmorphic disorder: A systematic review of psychological research

Ryding, Francesca C., Kuss, Daria J.·2020·Psychology of Popular Media
DOI 10.1037/ppm0000264
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Abstract

The escalation of social networking site (SNS) usage has led to much research examining both the positive and negative implications SNS can have on well-being. However, whilst many studies have investigated the relationship between SNS usage and body image, there remains a paucity of research in regards to SNS usage and Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD). A systematic search was undertaken using Web of Science, PsychInfo and PubMed databases to identify SNS usage and patterns, SNS features and mediating factors contributing towards body image dissatisfaction, resulting in 40 studies meeting specific inclusion criteria. Findings identified passive SNS use and appearance-focused SNS use as particularly influential. Appearance-based comparisons were also found to be a strong mediator between SNS use and body image dissatisfaction. Using the current knowledge, parallels were highlighted in terms of body image dissatisfaction and BDD symptomatology, suggesting frequent SNS usage as a potential risk factor in the development of BDD symptoms.

AI snapshot

Written from the paper’s full text.

TL;DR

This systematic review of 40 studies found that passive and appearance-focused SNS use, mediated by appearance comparisons, is associated with greater body image dissatisfaction, and it draws parallels to BDD symptomatology. It concludes frequent SNS use may be a risk factor for BDD symptoms but notes that no included study explicitly tested SNS use and BDD, and calls for standardised definitions of excessive SNS use.

Key findings

  • Across 40 included studies, average SNS time was 1.5–2 hours per day; one older study reported 45 minutes per day on Facebook. In one study, 94% of respondents used Facebook at least once daily, 80.8% used it more than 15 minutes per day, and 20% spent more than two hours per day; 29.1% used highly visual social media more than two hours per day, and four respondents reported more than 11 hours per day.
  • Passive SNS use and appearance-focused SNS use were particularly influential; appearance-based comparisons were a strong mediator between SNS use and body image dissatisfaction, with upward comparisons associated with greater body dissatisfaction and body checking.
  • Parallels were highlighted between body image dissatisfaction and BDD symptomatology, such as reassurance-seeking and comparison, suggesting frequent SNS use as a potential risk factor for BDD symptoms; however, BDD was not explicitly compared with body image dissatisfaction and SNS use in any included study.
  • Gender differences were reported: females showed higher SNS use/excessive time (e.g., social media addiction mean 26.2 vs. 22.8; excessive time 13.79 vs. 11.71), and 20 studies used young female samples with limited male inclusion.

Methods

  • PRISMA-guided systematic review; searched Web of Science, PsychInfo, and PubMed using terms including social networking sites, social media, body image, comparison, self-esteem, body dysmorphic disorder, Facebook, Instagram, and body dissatisfaction; reference lists were also scanned.
  • Inclusion required empirical data and measures of SNS use, SNS features, body image, and BDD; exclusions were non-English studies, reviews, commentaries, book chapters, published abstracts, and non-peer-reviewed articles. Screening identified 9,095 records; 4,955 duplicates were removed, 4,140 were screened, 4,059 were excluded, 81 full texts were assessed, 41 were excluded (21 no body image measure, 14 no SNS use measure, 6 reviews), leaving 40 studies.
  • Data were extracted on sample characteristics, methodology and measures, and mediating processes; findings were synthesised narratively and presented in Table 1.

Limitations

  • Stated: social media and SNS are often used interchangeably but are not the same; included studies did not always define social media and spanned multiple SNS platforms rather than one, which may affect conclusions; the growing literature means relevant studies in submission or published since may have been missed.
  • Stated: many included studies used self-report perceived time online, subject to social desirability and recall bias; most were correlational/cross-sectional, so causal inferences cannot be drawn and bidirectional relationships are likely; longitudinal designs were lacking.
  • Stated/evident: samples were predominantly female, with 20 studies using young female samples and limited male inclusion; BDD was not explicitly compared with SNS use and body image dissatisfaction in any included study, so BDD conclusions are inferential.

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Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/ppm0000264

Cites

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Statistics

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Claims the paper makes

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  • Findingown data
    § Abstract

    The systematic search identified 40 studies meeting the inclusion criteria.

    “A systematic search was undertaken using Web of Science, PsychInfo and PubMed databases to identify SNS usage and patterns, SNS features and mediating factors contributing towards body image dissatisfaction, resulting in 40 studies meeting specific inclusion criteria.”
    • Also stated in: § Results · plain
      “A total of 40 studies were consequently identified as relevant from the literature.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingnone given
    § Abstract

    There is a paucity of research on SNS usage and BDD.

    “However, whilst many studies have investigated the relationship between SNS usage and body image, there remains a paucity of research in regards to SNS usage and Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD).”
    • Also stated in: § Introduction · plain
      “Whilst a number of studies investigate the relationship between SNS use and body image dissatisfaction, there remains a paucity of research surrounding SNS usage and Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingown data
    § Abstract

    Appearance-based comparisons are a strong mediator between SNS use and body image dissatisfaction.

    “Appearance-based comparisons were also found to be a strong mediator between SNS use and body image dissatisfaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim
  • Findingcitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    Two studies directly measured excessive and addictive SNS use.

    “Two studies directly measured excessive and addictive SNS use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • Findingcitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    Findings indicated an increase in the frequency of SNS use within the last decade.

    “Findings indicated an increase in the frequency of SNS use within the last decade.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
  • May combine two claims. 54
  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. 36
  • The quote only partly states this claim. 3

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    Findingown data
    § Abstract

    Passive SNS use and appearance-focused SNS use are particularly influential in relation to body image dissatisfaction.

    “Findings identified passive SNS use and appearance-focused SNS use as particularly influential.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    One study reported a time of 45 minutes spent on Facebook.

    “with one study reporting a time of 45 minutes spent on Facebook”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingcitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    Time spent on SNS was identified in 17 studies.

    “Time spent on SNS was identified in 17 studies”
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  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Findingcitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    Five studies used psychometric tools which included the Facebook Questionnaire, the Facebook Intensity Scale, the Generalised Problematic Internet Use Scale and the Excessive Time Online subscale, and the Social Media Addiction Questionnaire.

    “Five studies used psychometric tools which included the Facebook Questionnaire”
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    Findingcitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    One study included participants who reported their daily time spent on social media as exceeding 11 hours.

    “one study also included participants who reported their daily time spent on social media as exceeding 11 hours”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingcitation
    § Body Image and Concerns

    Much of the research suggested that frequent use of SNS is associated with increased body image concern and dissatisfaction, with many studies in particular surrounding Facebook.

    “Much of the research suggested that frequent use of SNS is associated with increased body image concern and dissatisfaction, with many studies in particular surrounding Facebook.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing), S4 (based). May combine two claims.

    Findingnone given
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    The present studies demonstrate that frequency of SNS use has increased in recent years, with an average of two hours a day being spent online.

    “The present studies demonstrate that frequency of SNS use has increased in recent years, with an average of two hours a day being spent online.”
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    Findingreasoning
    § Body Image and Concerns

    The relationship between SNS and body image concerns was measured with a variety of psychometric tools.

    “The relationship between SNS and body image concerns was measured with a variety of psychometric tools.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingcitation
    § Mediating Factors

    Appearance and social comparisons are strong mediators in body image dissatisfaction.

    “Appearance and social comparisons were also highlighted in a number of studies as a strong mediator in body image dissatisfaction”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · boosted
      “The role of comparison was highlighted as a predominant mediating factor in the relationship between SNS and body image dissatisfaction”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Findingown data
    § Discussion

    SNS features and appearance comparison online contribute to body image dissatisfaction.

    “Factors including SNS features and appearance comparison online were found to contribute to body image dissatisfaction”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Findingown data
    § Discussion

    A total of 40 empirical studies were identified in the review.

    “A total of 40 empirical studies were identified”
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    Findingcitation
    § Discussion

    Females endorsed significantly higher time on SNS in comparison to males, which was also associated with appearance dissatisfaction.

    “females endorsed a significantly higher time on SNS in comparison to males, which was also associated with appearance dissatisfaction”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingreasoning
    § Discussion

    Many studies focus only on Facebook, which confines findings of SNS usage and subjective well-being outcomes to this particular site.

    “many studies focus only on Facebook, which arguably confines findings of SNS usage and subjective well-being outcomes to this particular site”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Findingcitation
    § Mediating Factors

    Social comparison is a mediator across various dimensions of wellbeing, including self-esteem and body image dissatisfaction, indicating comparison on SNS as a strong factor in body image concerns.

    “These findings highlight social comparison as a mediator across various dimensions of wellbeing, including self-esteem and body image dissatisfaction, indicating comparison on SNS as a strong factor in body image concerns”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Findingcitation
    § Mediating Factors

    Self-esteem is a mediator in body image dissatisfaction and is often a co-mediator with comparison.

    “self-esteem was also found as a mediator in body image dissatisfaction, and was often a co-mediator with comparison”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Interpretationreasoning
    § Introduction

    Those who engage in appearance comparisons online may experience an increase in negative appearance evaluation and therefore the likelihood of developing BDD symptomatology through frequent and repetitive SNS use.

    “In relation to SNS, this suggests that those who engage in appearance comparisons online may experience an increase in negative appearance evaluation and therefore the likelihood of developing BDD symptomatology through frequent and repetitive SNS use.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Introduction

    Passive SNS use is related to upward social comparison, which is associated with lower self-evaluation and subjective well-being.

    “Furthermore, passive SNS use has also been related to upward social comparison, which is consequently associated with lower self-evaluation and subjective well-being (Wang, Wang, Gaskin & Hawk, 2017)”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wang, Wang, Gaskin & Hawk, 2017

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    Premisecitation
    § Introduction

    Addictive behaviours displayed in those presenting OCD symptomatology can be conceptualised as a coping mechanism for the symptoms expressed, which may be likened to safety behaviours exhibited in BDD.

    “it has been suggested that the addictive behaviours displayed in those presenting OCD symptomatology can be conceptualised as a coping mechanism for the symptoms expressed (Lieb, 2015), which may be likened to the safety behaviours exhibited in BDD.”
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    • cites Lieb, 2015

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    Premisecitation
    § Introduction

    Men viewing fitspiration content show greater appearance comparisons and poorer body satisfaction compared to women.

    “resulting in greater appearance comparisons and poorer body satisfaction in comparison to women (Fatt, Fardouly & Rapee, 2019).”
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    • cites Fatt, Fardouly & Rapee, 2019

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    Premisecitation
    § Introduction

    BDD symptomatology is parallel with behaviour individuals with high body dissatisfaction exhibit, which leads to further negative appearance evaluation.

    “Such symptomatology is also parallel with the behaviour individuals with high body dissatisfaction exhibit, which has consequently been shown to lead to further negative appearance evaluation (Lambrou, Veale & Wilson, 2012).”
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    • cites Lambrou, Veale & Wilson, 2012

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    Study design and conductcitation
    § Method

    The review process was conducted in accordance with PRISMA.

    “The review process was conducted in accordance to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis statement (PRISMA; Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff & Altman, 2009).”
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    • cites Moher, Liberati, Tetzlaff & Altman, 2009

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Introduction

    Due to the cross-sectional nature of many studies, causal inferences cannot be drawn and a bidirectional relationship likely exists between SNS engagement and body image dissatisfaction.

    “Many studies exploring this relationship are correlational however (Smith, Hames & Joiner, 2013; Kim & Chock, 2015), therefore due to the cross-sectional nature of these studies, causal inferences cannot be drawn and it is likely that a bidirectional relationship exists between SNS engagement and body image dissatisfaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Smith, Hames & Joiner, 2013

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    • cites Kim & Chock, 2015

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Introduction

    The differential outcomes of well-being are dependent on the way SNS users engage with SNS platforms when online.

    “indicating that the differential outcomes of well-being are dependent on the way SNS users engage with SNS platforms when online.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation
    § Results

    Non-users were more conscientious than Facebook users.

    “Facebook users were more extravert and open, while non-users were more conscientious.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ghosh & Dagupta (2015)

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    Premisecitation
    § Results

    Women tend to use group names for self-presentation more than men.

    “Women also tend to use group names for self-presentation and prefer adding portrait photos to their profiles, in comparison to men who choose full- body shots.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Haferkamp, Eimler, Papadakis & Kruck (2012)

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    Premisecitation
    § Results

    Women prefer adding portrait photos to their profiles, in comparison to men who choose full-body shots.

    “Women also tend to use group names for self-presentation and prefer adding portrait photos to their profiles, in comparison to men who choose full- body shots.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Haferkamp, Eimler, Papadakis & Kruck (2012)

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    Interpretationreasoning
    § Introduction

    While there may be gender differences in the perception of idealised body type, the nature of engagement and the features of SNS use may be associated in the development and maintenance of body image dissatisfaction.

    “Such literature suggests that while there may be gender differences in the perception of idealised body type, the nature of engagement and the features of SNS use may be associated in the development and maintenance of body image dissatisfaction.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

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    Premisecitation
    § Results

    Gender predicted SM but not IA.

    “Gender predicted SM but not IA”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hawi & Samaha, 2018

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    Premisecitation
    § Results

    Total time spent on FB or the internet is not associated with greater thin ideal internalisation, self-objectification, weight dissatisfaction and drive for thinness.

    “It is not the total time spent on FB or the internet, but rather amount of FB time allocated to photo activity that is associated with greater thin ideal internalisation, self-objectification, weight dissatisfaction and drive for thinness.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Meier & Gray (2014)

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    Premisecitation
    § Results

    Only the interaction between social phobia and media pressure was a significant predictor of body dissatisfaction.

    “However, only the interaction between social phobia and media pressure was a significant predictor of body dissatisfaction.”
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    • cites Rodgers & Chabrol (2010)

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    Premisecitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    Fardouly and Vartanian (2015) demonstrated a modal time of two hours spent on Facebook using a young Australian female sample.

    “Fardouly and Vartanian (2015) who also demonstrated a modal time of two hours spent on Facebook using a young Australian female sample.”
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    • cites Fardouly & Vartanian, 2015

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    Premisecitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    Hawi and Samaha (2017) found a moderate level of addictive social media use overall, with females reporting higher levels of social media use (mean 26.2) than males (mean 22.8).

    “Scores indicated a moderate level of addictive social media use overall, with females reporting higher levels of social media use (mean score 26.2) than males (mean score 22.8).”
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    Premisecitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    On Facebook, reading newsfeed was the most popular activity, followed by viewing photos and messaging on a typical visit to the site.

    “on Facebook, reading newsfeed was the most popular activity, followed by viewing photos and messaging on a typical visit to the site”
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    • cites Eckler et al., 2017

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    Premisecitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    In Tiggemann and Miller (2010), modal time spent on the internet generally was 2-3 hours per day, with 40% of the sample spending 45 minutes per day on Facebook.

    “Results by Tiggemann and Miller (2010), in a study that consisted of 156 adolescent female high school students, indicated that the modal time spent on the internet generally was 2-3 hours per day, with 40% of this sample spending 45 minutes per day on Facebook.”
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    • cites Tiggemann & Miller, 2010

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    Study design and conductcitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    Time spent online was mainly measured through general self-report questions asking to indicate the number of minutes or hours spent on SNS.

    “Time spent online was mainly measured through general self-report questions asking to indicate the number of minutes or hours spent on SNS”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    Muench et al. (2015) found that 94% of respondents reported being on Facebook at least once a day, 80.8% for more than 15 minutes per day, and 20% spending more than two hours a day on Facebook.

    “Results by Muench et al. (2015) found that 94% of respondents reported being on Facebook at least once a day, with 80.8% being on Facebook for more than 15 minutes per day, and 20% spending more than two hours a day on Facebook.”
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    • cites Muench et al., 2015

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    Premisecitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    Marengo et al. (2018) found 29.1% of respondents used highly visual social media for more than 2 hours a day, which resulted in higher levels of emotional symptoms among HVSM users.

    “Findings demonstrated 29.1% of respondents used highly visual social media (HVSM), such as Instagram and Snapchat, for more than 2 hours a day, which resulted in higher levels of emotional symptoms among HVSM users (Marengo et al., 2018).”
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    • cites Marengo et al., 2018

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    Premisecitation
    § Body Image and Concerns

    Cohen, Newton-John and Slater (2017) found that photo-based activities on Facebook were associated with greater thin ideal internalisation and body surveillance, whilst Instagram use was associated with greater thin ideal internalisation, body surveillance and drive for thinness.

    “a study by Cohen, Newton-John and Slater (2017) found that photo-based activities on Facebook were associated with greater thin ideal internalisation and body surveillance, whilst Instagram use was associated with greater thin ideal internalisation, body surveillance and drive for thinness.”
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    Study design and conductnone given
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    The majority of the studies implemented self-report measures in terms of respondents' perceived time online, which may be subject to social desirability and recall bias.

    “the majority of the studies implemented self-report measures in terms of respondents' perceived time online, which may be subject to social desirability and recall bias.”
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    Premisecitation
    § Body Image and Concerns

    Internalisation of media ideals and BMI are the strongest predictors for drive for muscularity.

    “internalisation of media ideals, in addition to body mass index (BMI), were the strongest predictors for the drive for muscularity”
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    Interpretationcitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    Gender may predict excessive SNS use.

    “It has also been suggested that gender may predict excessive SNS use.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

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    Premisecitation
    § Body Image and Concerns

    Hendrickse, Apran, Clayton and Ridgeway (2017) found that individuals experienced a more intense drive towards thinness and had greater body dissatisfaction, particularly if they frequently engaged in comparisons with others.

    “Results reported that individuals experienced a more intense drive towards thinness and had greater body dissatisfaction, particularly if they found themselves frequently engaging in comparisons with others.”
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    • cites Hendrickse, Apran, Clayton and Ridgeway, 2017

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    Premisecitation
    § Body Image and Concerns

    Tiggemann and Slater (2013) found that internet exposure was associated with body surveillance and reduced body esteem, whilst Facebook users scored significantly higher on all indicators of body image concern.

    “findings indicated that internet exposure was associated with body surveillance and reduced body esteem, whilst Facebook users scored significantly higher on all indicators of body image concern.”
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    • cites Tiggemann & Slater, 2013

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    Premisecitation
    § Body Image and Concerns

    Facebook use is not associated with drive for muscularity for either males or females.

    “Facebook use was not associated with drive for muscularity for either males or females”
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    • cites Kim & Chock, 2015

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    Interpretationcitation
    § Body Image and Concerns

    It is not wholly clear how body type ideals for men lead to increased drive for muscularity.

    “it is not wholly clear how this relationship is established and how this consequently leads to increased drive for muscularity”
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    • cites Daniel & Bridges, 2010

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    Premisecitation
    § Body Image and Concerns

    Body comparisons are strongly related to drive for muscularity in males who exercise regularly.

    “Findings presented a strong relationship between body comparisons and drive for muscularity”
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    • cites Stratton et al., 2015

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    Premisecitation
    § Social Networking Site Usage

    More than two hours a day may point towards excessive SNS usage.

    “it has been suggested that more than two hours a day may point towards excessive SNS usage (Marengo et al., 2018).”
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    • cites Marengo et al., 2018

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    Premisecitation
    § SNS Features

    Exposure to fitspiration images on Instagram results in greater body dissatisfaction and lower appearance self-esteem than control images, mediated by appearance comparison processing.

    “exposure to fitspiration images resulted in greater body dissatisfaction and lower appearance self-esteem than the control images, an effect that was mediated by appearance comparison processing”
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    • cites Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015

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    Premisecitation
    § SNS Features

    Passive Facebook use predicts an increase in male appearance comparisons and increased body dissatisfaction.

    “passive Facebook use predicted an increase in male appearance comparisons and increased body dissatisfaction”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rousseau et al., 2017

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    Premisecitation
    § Mediating Factors

    Higher levels of appearance-related social media consciousness are positively associated with increased body comparison, higher body surveillance and lower self-esteem.

    “higher levels of ASMC were positively associated with increased body comparison, in addition to higher body surveillance and lower self-esteem”
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    • cites Choukas et al., 2018

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    Premisecitation
    § Mediating Factors

    Passive Facebook use predicts an increase in young boys' appearance social comparisons, which is subsequently associated with higher body dissatisfaction.

    “passive Facebook use has been shown to predict an increase in young boys' appearance social comparisons, which was subsequently associated with higher body dissatisfaction”
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    • cites Rousseau et al., 2017

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    Premisecitation
    § SNS Features

    Individuals who are more emotionally connected to Facebook tend to be more oriented towards their appearance.

    “individuals who were more emotionally connected to Facebook tended to be more oriented towards their appearance”
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    • cites Rutledge et al., 2013

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    Premisecitation
    § Mediating Factors

    Frequency of Facebook usage is positively associated with body image concerns, mediated by appearance comparisons in general.

    “frequency of Facebook usage was positively associated with body image concerns, which were mediated by appearance comparisons in general”
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    • cites Fardouly & Varanian, 2015

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    Premisecitation
    § SNS Features

    Time spent on Facebook is not supported as related to body image concerns.

    “did not support the relationship between time spent on Facebook and body image concerns”
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    • cites Rutledge et al., 2013

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    Interpretationcitation
    § SNS Features

    A cycle may exist in which passive SNS use positively influences comparison and body dissatisfaction, and these behaviours and cognitions positively influence passive SNS use.

    “it may be that such findings indicate towards a cycle of SNS use and body dissatisfaction, in which passive SNS use positively influences comparison and body dissatisfaction, and that these behaviours and cognitions positively influence passive SNS use”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rousseau et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Mediating Factors

    Photo-related activities on Instagram are not directly associated with body image dissatisfaction, but are related through both internalisation and appearance comparisons.

    “photo related activities on Instagram were not directly associated with body image dissatisfaction, but that they were related through both internalisation and appearance comparisons”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 2 sources checked
    • cites Hendricke et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

    • cites Fardouly et al., 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Body Image and Concerns

    Women are more likely to upload portrait pictures than full body pictures, which may provide more opportunities for facial, skin and hair-related comparisons than body comparisons.

    “women being more likely to upload more portrait pictures, as opposed to full body pictures, which could provide more opportunities to make facial, skin and hair-related comparisons than body comparisons”
    • Also stated in: § Discussion · hedged
      “women are more likely to upload portrait pictures onto SNS, as opposed to full body pictures, which may provide increased opportunities for facial, skin and hair related comparisons”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Haferkamp et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductnone given
    § Discussion

    20 studies were conducted with young female samples, with a lack of male inclusion, which may not accurately reflect SNS usage and gender differences wholly.

    “20 studies were conducted with young female samples, with a lack of male inclusion, which may not accurately reflect SNS usage and gender differences wholly”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Mediating Factors

    Social comparison and self-objectification mediate the relationship between body shame, Facebook use, self-esteem and mental health.

    “social comparison and self-objectification mediate the relationship between body shame, Facebook use, self-esteem and mental health”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hanna et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Females are more likely to use highly visual SNS as opposed to males, which consequently leads to greater body image dissatisfaction; such effects are stronger when SNS usage is above two hours a day.

    “females are more likely to use highly visual SNS as opposed to males, which consequently leads to greater body image dissatisfaction; such effects were stronger when SNS usage was above two hours a day”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Marengo et al., 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Mediating Factors

    High social comparison orientation SNS users are more likely to engage in upward social comparisons and therefore face more detrimental effects on self-evaluations and well-being.

    “high social comparison orientation SNS users are more likely to engage in upward social comparisons, and therefore face more detrimental effects in regards to self-evaluations and well-being”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wang et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Mediating Factors

    Heavier Instagram use is positively correlated with lower self-esteem, body image disturbance and physical appearance anxiety, mediated by social comparison.

    “heavier Instagram use was positively correlated with a range of psychological outcomes including lower self-esteem, body image disturbance and physical appearance anxiety, which was mediated by social comparison”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Sherlock & Wagstaff, 2018

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Mediating Factors

    Passive SNS usage is related to upward social comparison, which is consequently associated with users' lower self-evaluation.

    “passive SNS usage was also related to upward social comparison, which was consequently associated with users' lower self-evaluation”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wang et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Mediating Factors

    Facebook use is associated with increased social comparison and self-objectification, which is subsequently associated with lower self-esteem, greater body shame and poorer mental health.

    “Facebook use was associated with both increased social comparison and self-objectification, which was subsequently associated with lower self-esteem, in addition to greater body shame and poorer mental health”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hanna et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Mediating Factors

    Focus on upward comparisons is associated with greater body dissatisfaction and body checking.

    “the focus on upward comparisons was associated with greater body dissatisfaction and body checking”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ridolfi et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Females are more likely to spend an increased amount of time on SNS, resulting in higher weight and appearance concerns.

    “females are more likely to spend an increased amount of time on SNS, resulting in higher weight and appearance concerns”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Murray, Maras & Goldfield, 2016

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). The quote only partly states this claim.

    Premisecitation
    § Mediating Factors

    There is no direct association between Instagram use and self-esteem.

    “initial findings did not observe a direct association between Instagram use and self-esteem”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Stapleton et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Discussion

    Individuals who already experience distorted appearance-focused cognitions may place higher value on aesthetic appearance and therefore are more likely to evaluate themselves physically through comparison targets online.

    “individuals who already experience distorted appearance-focused cognitions may place higher value on aesthetic appearance and therefore are more likely to evaluate themselves physically through comparison targets online”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ridolfi et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Comparisons mediate levels of self-esteem, with increased comparison being associated with lower self-esteem, subsequently leading to greater body shame.

    “comparisons mediated levels of self-esteem, with increased comparison being associated with lower self-esteem, subsequently leading to greater body shame”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Hanna et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Limitations

    It is likely that studies that are in the process of submission or that have been published since have not been included within the review.

    “it is likely that studies that are in the process of submission or that have been published since have not been included within the review.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Subthreshold disorders do not meet full diagnostic criteria, but they do involve the presence of core symptoms and impairment, which has been shown to predict clinical manifestations of the disorder.

    “whilst subthreshold disorders do not meet full diagnostic criteria, they do involve the presence of core symptoms and impairment, which has been shown to predict clinical manifestations of the disorder (Wolitzky-Taylor, Dour, Zinbarg, Mineka, Vrshek-Schallhorn, Epstein et al., 2014).”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Wolitzky-Taylor, Dour, Zinbarg, Mineka, Vrshek-Schallhorn, Epstein et al., 2014

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Limitations

    The review included studies that did not specifically discern the definition of social media, in addition to including a range of different SNS platforms (e.g. Facebook, Instagram) as opposed to focussing on one specific platform, which may have implicated the conclusions drawn.

    “the review included studies that did not specifically discern the definition of social media, in addition to including a range of different SNS platforms (e.g. Facebook, Instagram) as opposed to focussing on one specific platform, which may have implicated the conclusions drawn.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Longitudinal research indicates that passive Facebook use predicts an increase in individuals' appearance comparisons, which is consequently associated with higher body dissatisfaction.

    “longitudinal research has indicated that passive Facebook use predicts an increase in individuals' appearance comparisons, which was consequently associated with higher body dissatisfaction”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Rousseau et al., 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Interpretationcitation
    § Discussion

    Women are more likely to upload portrait pictures onto SNS, as opposed to full body pictures, which may provide increased opportunities for facial, skin and hair related comparisons.

    “women are more likely to upload portrait pictures onto SNS, as opposed to full body pictures, which may provide increased opportunities for facial, skin and hair related comparisons”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Haferkamp et al., 2012

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Symptoms of BDD include the performance of repetitive behaviours, such as reassurance-seeking and comparison.

    “symptoms of BDD include the performance of repetitive behaviours, such as reassurance-seeking and comparison (Kelly et al., 2013)”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Kelly et al., 2013

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing).

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    The popularity of selfies has dramatically increased.

    “the popularity of selfies (self-portrait pictures) has dramatically increased”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Chae, 2017

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Upward comparisons are most detrimental, leading to stronger appearance-focussed cognitive distortions.

    “Upward comparisons in particular were demonstrated to be most detrimental, leading to stronger appearance-focussed cognitive distortions”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Ridolfi et al., 2011

      Not checked in the free run.

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim. May combine two claims.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusion and Implications

    Frequent SNS comparisons may mediate the onset of subthreshold BDD, leading to increased SNS usage and maintenance of BDD symptoms.

    “It is suggested that frequent SNS comparisons may mediate the onset of subthreshold BDD, leading to increased SNS usage and maintenance of BDD symptoms.”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Classified as probably not a substantial claim.

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Discussion

    Platforms such as Instagram, which focus on a highly image-based environment, may have a stronger association with body image dissatisfaction.

    “Platforms such as Instagram, which focus on a highly image-based environment, may have a stronger association with body image dissatisfaction”
    Quote in the paperSubstantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S3 (load-bearing). May combine two claims.

    Premisecitation
    § Discussion

    Facebook use has no direct effect on body satisfaction, or the desire to change weight or shape.

    “Facebook use had no direct effect on body satisfaction, or the desire to change weight or shape”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim0 of 1 sources checked
    • cites Fardouly et al., 2015

      Not checked in the free run.

  • May combine two claims.

    Study design and conductreasoning
    § Discussion

    Many of the measures used to assess body image concerns within this review included the PACS and BSQ, which focus on weight and body shape comparisons, which may have biased findings towards weight-related body dissatisfaction.

    “many of the measures used to assess body image concerns within this review included the PACS and BSQ, which focus on weight and body shape comparisons. This may have subsequently biased findings towards weight-related body dissatisfaction”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim

  • Probably not a substantial claim: may not pass S2 (checkable).

    Interpretationreasoning
    § Conclusion and Implications

    Measures that have been chosen to assess appearance-based constructs may not be sufficiently sensitive to different online environments.

    “measures that have been chosen to assess appearance-based constructs may not be sufficiently sensitive to different online environments.”
    Quote in the paperNot a substantial claim
82 of 82

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The included studies' measures of SNS use and body image are valid and comparable enough to synthesize across studies.

    “Features of SNS use were predominantly assessed using a number of self-report methods”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The reviewed literature is representative of the broader research on SNS and body image.

    “A total of 40 empirical studies were identified”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    The relationship between SNS use and body image concerns has clinical implications worth assessing.

    “if SNS research aims to extend into clinical assessment, a standardised baseline regarding SNS usage time needs to be implemented”

  • The paper relies on this without support.

    Body image dissatisfaction and BDD symptoms are parallel enough to discuss together.

    “Parallels between body image dissatisfaction and BDD symptoms are also discussed”
4 of 4

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Self-check

Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.

Each contradiction between two passages listed here was confirmed by an independent check.

  • Female-only sample is used for a comparison with males

    Major

    The paper attributes a female-versus-male finding to Choukas-Bradley et al. (2018), but Table 1 describes that study's sample as 339 females, with no males.

  • Conflicting sample sizes for Marengo et al. (2017)

    Minor

    The SNS Features section describes a survey of 598 adolescents, while Table 1 reports 523 for the cited study.

  • An included study does not meet the stated SNS-use criterion

    Minor

    The method requires included studies to measure SNS use and body dysmorphic disorder. Table 1 lists Daniel and Bridges (2010) as an included study, but its listed measures concern media ideals and body image, with no SNS-use or BDD measure.

  • Conflicting sample sizes for Hawi and Samaha (2017)

    Minor

    The narrative gives 396 participants for this study, while Table 1 gives 364.

  • Reported study age range excludes a listed sample

    Minor

    The SNS Features section gives an age range ending at 23.83 years while citing Stronge et al. (2015) among those studies. Table 1 reports a mean age of 49.23 years for that study's sample.

5 of 5

Cites

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Related

Authors
Ryding, F. C., & Kuss, D. J.
ORCID
Venue
Psychology of Popular Media
Publisher
American Psychological Association (APA)
Published
2020-10
Volume
9
Issue
4
Pages
412-435
ISSN
  • 2689-6567 (ISSN-L)
  • 2689-6575
DOI
10.1037/ppm0000264
OpenAlex
W2989773729
Semantic Scholar
afa2eeb0ef12e7b698545ddb5cecce87c802a6e3
Cited by
162
References
82
Citations by year
2026: 18 · 2025: 39 · 2024: 31 · 2023: 31 · 2022: 22 · 2021: 14 · 2020: 7
FWCI
1.70
Type
journal article
Language
en
Open access
closed
Locations
  • Psychology of Popular Media (publishedVersion)
  • Nottingham Trent University's Institutional Repository (Nottingham Trent Repository) (acceptedVersion)
Topics
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Body Image and Dysmorphia Studies
  • Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Impact of Technology on Adolescents
  • Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Eating Disorders and Behaviors
Keywords
social networking sites, body dissatisfaction, body dysmorphic disorder, passive social media use, mediators

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Claims read by deepseek-v4.1-flash under definition version 3 (extract-v3) on 2026-10-10.

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