Play in predictive minds: A cognitive theory of play.
Open accessAbstract
In this article, we argue that a predictive processing framework (PP) may provide elements for a proximate model of play in children and adults. We propose that play is a behavior in which the agent, in contexts of freedom from the demands of certain competing cognitive systems, deliberately seeks out or creates surprising situations that gravitate toward sweet-spots of relative complexity with the goal of resolving surprise. We further propose that play is experientially associated with a feel-good quality because the agent is reducing significant levels of prediction error (i.e., surprise) faster than expected. We argue that this framework can unify a range of well-established findings in play and developmental research that highlights the role of play in learning, and that casts children as Bayesian learners. The theory integrates the role of positive valence in play (i.e., explaining why play is fun); and what it is to be in a playful mood. Central to the account is the idea that playful agents may create and establish an environment tailored to the generation and further resolution of surprise and uncertainty. Play emerges here as a variety of niche construction where the organism modulates its physical and social environment in order to maximize the productive potential of surprise. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
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According to the AIF, actions like play and curious exploration open a space of greater possibilities for effective epistemic actions that minimize prediction error over longer timescales, collapsing the distinction between exploitative and explorative behaviours.
“According to the AIF, actions like play and curious exploration, albeit metabolically costly, open a space of greater possibilities for effective (epistemic) actions that minimize the prediction error over longer timescales, collapsing the distinction between exploitative and explorative behaviours [177].”
From Active inference goes to school: the importance of active learning in the age of large language models (2024) · cites this paper as [177]
Play requires a context of freedom and goes beyond make believe and fantasy.
“According to AIF, play requires a ‘context of freedom’ ([177], p. 463) and goes beyond ‘make believe’ and fantasy.”
From Active inference goes to school: the importance of active learning in the age of large language models (2024) · cites this paper as [177]
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Congolese BaYaka children's learning and exploring in a village context
Visine, A., Hillemann, F., Holden, E., Ndenguele, R., Ngoma, G. R., & Lew‐Levy, S. (2026) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2026.106978
Puccio, G., Franceschini, S., Carbone, S., Filotto, C., Gori, S., Pievani, T., Trezza, V., Mascheretti, S., Facoetti, A., & Bertoni, S. (2026) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2026.101183 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Dodd, H., Patterson, E., Skripkauskaite, S., & Lawrence, P. J. (2026) · JCPP Advances · doi:10.1002/jcv2.70076 · Cited by 1
“Play is proposed to support healthy development across a range of developmental domains including social development, emotion regulation and cognitive development (Andersen et al., 2023; Barnett, 1990; Singer et al., 2006; Zhao & Gibson, 2022).”
An autoethnographic exploration of tabletop role-playing games as a therapeutic tool in dramatherapy
Hobbi, D. M., & Bololia, L. (2026) · The Arts in Psychotherapy · doi:10.1016/j.aip.2025.102413 · Cited by 1
The relationship between childhood exploration and population-level innovation in cultural evolution
Miu, E., Andersen, M. M., Lew‐Levy, S., & Riede, F. (2026) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2025.2122 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationA model-centered introduction to curiosityPreprint
Chartouny, A., Girard, B., & Khamassi, M. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.11.19.689250
“Play - Play has been described as the will to seek out or create intricate and mildly complex situations, with the objective to resolve surprise and uncertainty [94].”
The Fast and the Curious: Creative Improvisation as Action-oriented Abduction
Linson, A., Schulkin, J. A., & Clark, A. (2025) · Imagination Cognition and Personality · doi:10.1177/02762366251365906 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
Recreational Fear Across Childhood. A Cross-Sectional Study of Scary Activities that Children Enjoy
Ţăranu, M., Clasen, M., Rosas, F. E., Dodd, H. F., & Andersen, M. M. (2025) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-025-01850-2 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Self-citationMilanović, N. M. (2024) · SCIENCE International Journal · doi:10.35120/sciencej0304001m · Cited by 1
Predictive Processing, Rational Constructivism, and Bayesian Models of Development: Commentary
Perfors, A. (2024) · Topics in Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/tops.12759 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Abstracts from the 2023 NPSA Congress
Balchin, R., Maroun, M., Shamay-Tsoory, S., Axmacher, N., Asmar, N., Assi-Armaly, I., Ghnadre-Naser, S., Shalev, I., Goergen, M. S., Vilker, D. B., et al. (2024) · Neuropsychoanalysis · doi:10.1080/15294145.2024.2333789 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
Kociubuk, J., & Campana, K. (2024) · Library & Information Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.lisr.2024.101280 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
The duality of playful work design: A diary study of designing fun and competition
Bakker, A. B., Hetland, J., Scharp, Y. S., Olsen, O. K., & Espevik, R. (2026) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2026.116566
Clowning as a pedagogy for leaders: learning to transgress unsustainable ‘normality’
Lima, F. C. D. C., & Wals, A. (2026) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504622.2026.2744862
Bertoni, S., Puccio, G., Franceschini, S., Carbone, S., Filotto, C., Mancarella, M., Gori, S., Pievani, T., Trezza, V., & Facoetti, A. (2026) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2026.116548
Boosting playful work design: a test of a micro and modular e-intervention
Scharp, Y. S., van Woerkom, M., & Junker, T. L. (2026) · Career Development International · doi:10.1108/cdi-12-2025-0694
The Making of Media Entertainment
Lewis, R. J. (2026) · Journal of Media Psychology Theories Methods and Applications · doi:10.1027/1864-1105/a000520
Noy‐Sharav, D. (2026) · Journal of Psychology and Neuroscience · doi:10.47485/2693-2490.1177
Violence, sense-making, and the limits of moral transformation
White, B. (2026) · Sport Ethics and Philosophy · doi:10.1080/17511321.2026.2729047
Primate Play and the Classificatory Making of Human Nature
Bădescu, I. (2026) · Evolutionary Anthropology Issues News and Reviews · doi:10.1002/evan.70047
“Related work describes play as the creation of manageable surprise, where individuals seek uncertain situations and then work through them [38].”
Coming to grips with the application of predictive processing in sports and sports coaching
Kennedy, A. (2026) · International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching · doi:10.1177/17479541261466493
A Bayesian framework for happiness, health, and psychological well-being
Mauro, F. (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2026.1778763
“…2019), a playful stance installs a high-level prior that treats selected uncertainty and prediction error as welcomed, explorable, and regulable, widening one’s tolerated surprise range and contributing to both momentary enjoyment and long-term meaning (Andersen et al., 2023; Miller et al., 2022).”
InfluentialTrapp, S., Németh, D., & Janacsek, K. (2026) · Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science · doi:10.1007/s12124-026-10019-y · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Andersen et al. ( 2023 ) provide a systematic PP-based account that helps integrate these developmental findings on exploration.”
Play stimulation modifies brain and behaviour in chickens - effects of domestication.
Alsager, C., Wreth, A., & Jensen, P. (2026) · Behavioural Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.bbr.2026.116269
Making fun functional: Work context features, task fun regulation and task performance
Celestine, N. A., Yeo, G., Ji, S., Chen, Z., To, M. L., Gödöllei, A. F., & Chu, R. (2026) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2026.104278
Robledo, J.-P., Cross, I. R. M., Phillips, M., Kearney, J., & Taylor, J. R. (2026) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2026.106826
Nucci, R., Bogdanova, M., & Taji, F. N. A. A. (2026) · Entrepreneurship and Regional Development · doi:10.1080/08985626.2026.2680988
Parvizi-Wayne, D., Pedersen, R., & Rankin, J. (2026) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-026-00828-w
“…that play also occurs in a “Goldilocks Zone” (it represents an inverted U-shaped curve), where the skills of the individual match the challenge of the game they are involved in, whilst prediction error (or free energy) is being minimised at a faster rate than expected (Andersen et al. 2023 ).”
Intrinsic recreation of moderately uncertain events in macaques
Iki, S., Iwaoki, H., Hattori, Y., & Adachi, I. (2026) · iScience · doi:10.1016/j.isci.2026.115820
“2,3,13 Because the studies cited above relied primarily on looking-time measures, the following point warrants attention.”
Meningkatkan Regulasi Diri Anak Usia Dini melalui Montessori Silence Game
Naswinarsih, M., Dhieni, N., & Supena, A. (2026) · Didaktika: Jurnal Kependidikan · doi:10.58230/27454312.3480
How consumers form attitude toward brand collaboration: the case of LEGO ⨯ Formula 1
Yeh, T.-Y., Lin, Y.-H., Chen, W.-L., Yu, Y.-C., & Chen, C.-Y. (2026) · International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship · doi:10.1108/ijsms-10-2025-0517
Simplicity, Complexity, and the Inkblot Puzzle
Hammarström, E., Grønnerød, C., & Lundqvist, L. (2026) · Rorschachiana Journal of the International Society for the Rorschach · doi:10.1027/1192-5604/a000205
Benjamini, H., Keisari, S., Golland, Y., & Ben‐David, B. M. (2025) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-025-05935-0 · Cited by 1 · see citing works
“Whereas young children engage in playful interactions routinely and intuitively, adult playfulness is typically less spontaneous and are more context-dependent (Andersen et al. 2023).”
Chinchella, N., & White, B. (2025) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2025.2563072
Playfulness and play in picturebooks in light of bibliotherapeutic theory and practice
Ifrah, S. (2025) · Journal of Poetry Therapy · doi:10.1080/08893675.2025.2549077
The information structure of boredom via integrated information theory
Niizato, T., Nishiyma, Y., & Nomura, S. (2025) · Artificial Life and Robotics · doi:10.1007/s10015-025-01050-0
“Boredom can generally be considered a desire for stimulation; however, it does not fully fit into existing emotional classification models, such as the free energy principle (FEP)[5, 6].”
Dodd, H. F., Nesbit, R. J., & FitzGibbon, L. (2025) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.160920.1
Performing Bad Scaffolds: Exploring Dynamic Imaginative Niches
Ianniello, A., & Habets, D. (2025) · Topoi · doi:10.1007/s11245-024-10154-4
“The motivating and pleas-urable encounter of surprise that is characteristic of play, is most likely to occur in activities that are just within reach of one’s abilities and skills (Andersen et al. 2021; Bateson and Martin 2013; Csikszentmihalyi 1997).”
MiniCandidate: An Innovative Method for Enhancing Employee Selection
Tews, M. J., Pons, S., Cruz, L., & Weinstock, C. (2024) · Management Teaching Review · doi:10.1177/23792981241283454
“In fact, prior research has demonstrated that different forms of play are instrumental in enhancing knowledge and skill acquisition (Andersen et al., 2023; Gopnik & Walker, 2013; Heimann & Roepstorff, 2018; Mercer et al., 2017).”
Gardner, J. (2023) · International Journal of Play · doi:10.1080/21594937.2023.2202456
“For that, the reader must note and build upon the in-text citations provided or look to Andersen’s other, more academic publications such as Andersen et al. (2022) article, Play in Predictive Minds: A cognitive Theory of Play.”
Background
- Authors
- Andersen, M. M., Kiverstein, J., Miller, M., & Roepstorff, A.
- Affiliations
- Aarhus University (DK)
- Amsterdam University Medical Centers (NL)
- Hokkaido University (JP)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 2023-03
- Volume
- 130
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 462-479
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W4283025704
- Cited by
- 122
- References
- 159
- Citations by year
- 2026: 30 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 34 · 2023: 17 · 2022: 11 · 2021: 4
- FWCI
- 11.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Monash University Research Portal (Monash University) (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Lego Foundation
- European Union (DLV-692739)
- ERC (679190)
- Netherlands Scientific Organisation
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Embodied and Extended Cognition
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Child and Animal Learning Development
- Social Sciences › Education › Early Childhood Education and Development
- Keywords
- play, predictive processing, surprise, prediction error, Bayesian learning, children, positive valence, niche construction, uncertainty, cognitive development, learning
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Bayes Theorem, Child, Cognition, Emotions, Humans, Learning, Uncertainty
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