The power of pupil size in establishing trust and reciprocity.
Open accessAbstract
The eyes are extremely important in communication and can send a multitude of different messages. Someone's pupil size carries significant social information and can reflect different cognitive and affective states that within a social interaction can prove to be particularly meaningful. In 3 studies we investigated the impact of a person's pupil size on how others evaluate that person. In Experiment 1, participants played trust games in the role of investor. The results demonstrate that participants trusted happy compared with angry partners more, as well as those with dilating compared with constricting pupils, to whom they also assigned more positive personality traits including friendliness, attractiveness, and trustworthiness. In Experiment 2, participants played the same trust game, but this time in the role of trustee, where they had to decide to reciprocate and share a financial gain with the investor or to keep it for themselves, and act selfishly. The results show that participants reciprocated more to partners with dilating compared with constricting pupils. In Experiment 3, we found preliminary evidence that these positive behavioral changes are likely to be specifically directed to the virtual partner and do not reflect a general positivity bias. To conclude, pupil size is an important social cue that others implicitly take into account when making social decisions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).
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Humans have a cognitive tendency to perceive emotional arousal based on iris-pupil contrast and make inferences about a person's personality.
“humans have a cognitive tendency to perceive emotional arousal based on iris–pupil contrast and make inferences about a person's personality [33–37].”
From Are dark-eyed dogs favoured by humans? Domestication as a potential driver of iris colour difference between dogs and wolves (2023) · cites this paper as [37]
The General Discussion says pupil-size changes can signal arousal, and the Conclusion reports that dilating pupils increased ratings of trustworthiness, friendliness, and attractiveness. Those passages support inferences about emotion and personal qualities from pupils, but our copy does not establish that people perceive arousal specifically from iris–pupil contrast. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHuman participants evaluate those with dilating pupils as more friendly, attractive and trustworthy and behave more cooperatively with them in the trust game.
“For example, people with large pupils are commonly rated as more attractive and activate neural responses in the amygdala [35,36], and a recent study demonstrates that human participants evaluate those with dilating pupils as more friendly, attractive and trustworthy and behave more cooperatively with them in the trust game [37].”
From Are dark-eyed dogs favoured by humans? Domestication as a potential driver of iris colour difference between dogs and wolves (2023) · cites this paper as [37]
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“This possibility stems from the fact that humans have a cognitive tendency to perceive emotional arousal based on iris – pupil contrast and make inferences about a person ’ s personality [33 – 37].”
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The phenomenon of human trust: an interdisciplinary review
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Eye contact during virtual storytelling: Enhancing social evaluation through pupil mimicry
Fasya, E. L., van den Bos, E., Heylen, D., & Kret, M. E. (2025) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2025.103558
Self-citationDrimalla, H. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-96-5290-7_20
Physiological synchrony predicts reduced reciprocity only in face-to-face interactions
Diana, F., Folz, J., Sjak-Shie, E., Hortensius, R., & Kret, M. E. (2026) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2025.3224
Self-citation
- Authors
- Kret, M. E., & De Dreu, C. K. W.
- Affiliations
- Leiden University (NL)
- Corresponding author
- Kret, Mariska E.
- ORCID
- Kret, Mariska E.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
- Published
- 2019-08
- Volume
- 148
- Issue
- 8
- Pages
- 1299-1311
- ISSN
- 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2222
- OpenAlex
- W2912493984
- Cited by
- 44
- References
- 62
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 5 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 5 · 2020: 3 · 2019: 3
- FWCI
- 4.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Leiden Repository (Leiden University) (submittedVersion)
- University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) (submittedVersion, other-oa)
- Data Archiving and Networked Services (DANS) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Netherlands Science Foundation (016-155-082)
- Templeton World Charity Foundation (0267)
- Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
- Social Sciences › Safety Research › Experimental Behavioral Economics Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Deception detection and forensic psychology
- Keywords
- pupil size, pupil dilation, trust, reciprocity, trustworthiness, social cues, facial expressions, emotion perception, trust game, virtual partner
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Decision Making, Emotions, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Pupil, Trust, Young Adult
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