Sleep can reduce the testing effect: It enhances recall of restudied items but can leave recall of retrieved items unaffected.
Abstract
The testing effect refers to the finding that retrieval practice in comparison to restudy of previously encoded contents can improve memory performance and reduce time-dependent forgetting. Naturally, long retention intervals include both wake and sleep delay, which can influence memory contents differently. In fact, sleep immediately after encoding can induce a mnemonic benefit, stabilizing and strengthening the encoded contents. We investigated in a series of 5 experiments whether sleep influences the testing effect. After initial study of categorized item material (Experiments 1, 2, and 4A), paired associates (Experiment 3), or educational text material (Experiment 4B), subjects were asked to restudy encoded contents or engage in active retrieval practice. A final recall test was conducted after a 12-hr delay that included diurnal wakefulness or nocturnal sleep. The results consistently showed typical testing effects after the wake delay. However, these testing effects were reduced or even eliminated after sleep, because sleep benefited recall of restudied items but left recall of retrieved items unaffected. The findings are consistent with the bifurcation model of the testing effect (Kornell, Bjork, & Garcia, 2011), according to which the distribution of memory strengths across items is shifted differentially by retrieving and restudying, with retrieval strengthening items to a much higher degree than restudy does. On the basis of this model, most of the retrieved items already fall above recall threshold in the absence of sleep, so additional sleep-induced strengthening may not improve recall of retrieved items any further.
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Previous work has indicated that restudied but not retested materials are better remembered after a night of sleep than a day of wakefulness.
“Consistent with this view, previous work has indicated that restudied but not retested materials are better remembered after a night of sleep than a day of wakefulness [24,25].”
From Sleep bolsters schematically incongruent memories (2022) · cites this paper as [24]
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Self-citation
- Authors
- Bäuml, K.-H. T., Holterman, C., & Abel, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Regensburg (DE)
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 2014
- Volume
- 40
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1568-1581
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2074103369
- Cited by
- 71
- References
- 13
- Citations by year
- 2026: 3 · 2025: 7 · 2024: 8 · 2023: 12 · 2022: 4 · 2021: 9 · 2020: 7 · 2019: 5 · 2018: 5 · 2017: 5 · 2016: 3 · 2015: 2
- FWCI
- 1.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft) (BA 1382/14-1)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Sleep and Wakefulness Research
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Keywords
- testing effect, sleep, restudy, retrieval practice, memory consolidation, memory retrieval, bifurcation model, retention interval, paired associates, educational texts
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Female, Humans, Male, Models, Psychological, Photic Stimulation, Practice, Psychological, Psychological Tests, Mental Recall, Sleep, Visual Perception, Wakefulness, Young Adult
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