Why tests appear to prevent forgetting: A distribution-based bifurcation model
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In the short term (within an hour of learning), restudied information is better remembered than information subjected to retrieval practice.
“In the short term (e.g. within an hour of learning), restudied information is better remembered than information subjected to retrieval practice [1–3].”
From Sleep bolsters schematically incongruent memories (2022) · cites this paper as [2]
Corrective feedback can reduce difficulty and prevent disengagement.
“In such cases, corrective feedback can reduce difficulty and prevent disengagement (Binks, 2018; Kornell et al., 2011).”
From Does difficulty moderate learning? A comparative analysis of the desirable difficulties framework and cognitive load theory (2025) · cites this paper as Kornell et al., 2011
For participants who restudy items, the distribution of memory strengths shifts to the right.
“For participants who then restudy the items, the resulting memory strengths will tend to increase such that the distribution of memory strengths will be shifted to the right (Figure 7c).”
From Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning (2021) · cites this paper as Kornell et al. 2011
As time passes before the final criterial test, all items have reduced memory strength due to forgetting; the greater the passage of time, the more shift in the distribution due to forgetting.
“As time passes before the final criterial test, all items will have reduced memory strength due to forgetting; the greater the passage of time, the more shift in the distribution due to forgetting.”
From Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning (2021) · cites this paper as Kornell et al. 2011
In the bifurcation model, after a person studies a set of items, there will be variability in the resulting memory strength of those items.
“After a person studies a set of items, there will be variability in the resulting memory strength of those items (see Figure 7a,b).”
From Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning (2021) · cites this paper as Kornell et al. 2011
If participants are tested on items, some correctly retrieved items benefit from enhanced memory strength, while failed retrieval items receive no benefit, so the distribution becomes bifurcated.
“If instead participants are tested on those items, then some of the items will benefit quite a lot from enhanced memory strengths (i.e., those that are correctly retrieved); the other items will receive no benefit from the (failed) retrieval attempt (Figure 7d).That is, the distribution will become bifurcated.”
From Practicing Retrieval Facilitates Learning (2021) · cites this paper as Kornell et al. 2011
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Providing Extrinsic Reward for Test Performance Undermines Long-Term Memory Acquisition
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Individual and Combined Effects of Enactment and Testing on Memory for Action Phrases
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Is Forgetting Caused by Inhibition?
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The effect of recall, reproduction, and restudy on word learning: a pre-registered study
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Adaptive retrieval practice with multiple‐choice questions in the university classroom
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- Authors
- Kornell, N., Bjork, R. A., & Garcia, M. A.
- Affiliations
- Williams College (US)
- University of California, Los Angeles (US)
- Corresponding author
- Kornell, Nate
- Venue
- Journal of Memory and Language
- Publisher
- Elsevier BV
- Published
- 2011-08
- Volume
- 65
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 85-97
- ISSN
- 0749-596X (ISSN-L)
- OpenAlex
- W2146545999
- Cited by
- 277
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 23 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 20 · 2021: 21 · 2020: 16 · 2019: 24 · 2018: 25 · 2017: 17 · 2016: 16 · 2015: 24 · 2014: 24 · 2013: 19 · 2012: 12
- FWCI
- 9.42
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Memory and Language (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory and Neural Mechanisms
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Functions and Memory
- Keywords
- retrieval-induced forgetting, bifurcation model, memory strength, restudying, retrieval practice, forgetting rate
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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