Cited by 1,603Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation StudiesUltrasound and Hyperthermia ApplicationsAdvanced MRI Techniques and Applications

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation and the human brain

Hallett, Mark·2000·Nature

DOI 10.1038/35018000

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Abstract

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is rapidly developing as a powerful, non-invasive tool for studying the human brain. A pulsed magnetic field creates current flow in the brain and can temporarily excite or inhibit specific areas. TMS of motor cortex can produce a muscle twitch or block movement; TMS of occipital cortex can produce visual phosphenes or scotomas. TMS can also alter the functioning of the brain beyond the time of stimulation, offering potential for therapy.

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McFadden, J. (2007) · NeuroQuantology · doi:10.14704/nq.2007.5.3.135 · Cited by 44
Interregional long-range and short-range synchrony: a basis for complex sensorimotor processing
Hummel, F. C., & Gerloff, C. P. (2006) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/s0079-6123(06)59015-6 · Cited by 38
Transcranial magnetic stimulation for the treatment of anxiety disorder
Rodrigues, P., Zaninotto, A., Neville, I., Hayashi, C., Brunoni, A., Teixeira, M., & Paiva, W. (2019) · Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment · doi:10.2147/ndt.s201407 · Cited by 43
Cognitive effects of bilateral high frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in early phase psychosis: a pilot study
Francis, M., Hummer, T. A., Vohs, J. L., Yung, M. G., Visco, A. C., Mehdiyoun, N. F., Kulig, T. C., Um, M., Yang, Z., Motamed, M., et al. (2018) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-018-9902-4 · Cited by 48
Early processing in primary visual cortex is necessary for conscious and unconscious vision while late processing is necessary only for conscious vision in neurologically healthy humans
Hurme, M., Koivisto, M., Revonsuo, A., & Railo, H. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.02.060 · Cited by 43
“This creates a magnetic pulse that induces an electric charge to the cortex (Hallet, 2000).”
Background
Treatment of Poststroke Aphasia: Current Practice and New Directions
Fama, M. E., & Turkeltaub, P. (2014) · Seminars in neurology · doi:10.1055/s-0034-1396004 · Cited by 43
A comparison of two methods in acquiring stimulus-response curves with transcranial magnetic stimulation.
Pearce, A., Clark, R. A., & Kidgell, D. (2013) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2012.05.010 · Cited by 43
“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a well established, non-invasive technique tomeasure the human corticospinal system [1,2].”
Non-invasive cerebral stimulation for the upper limb rehabilitation after stroke: a review.
Kandel, M., Beis, J., Chapelain, L. L., Guesdon, H., & Paysant, J. (2012) · Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.rehab.2012.09.001 · Cited by 43
“Depuis ces travaux, la TMS est devenue un outil puissant, non invasif, d’étude du fonctionnement cérébral dans les laboratoires de neurophysiologie et de neurosciences cognitives [27].”
The value of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) for the treatment of anxiety disorders: an integrative review.
Paes, F., Machado, S., Arias-Carrión, Ó., Velasques, B., Teixeira, S., Budde, H., Cagy, M., Piedade, R., Ribeiro, P., Huston, J., et al. (2011) · CNS and Neurological Disorders - Drug Targets · doi:10.2174/187152711796234943 · Cited by 43
“The application of rTMS generates clear effects on a range of measures of brain function and has become an important research tool in neuropsychiatry treatment [8-10].”
Method
Age‐related differences in corticospinal excitability during a Go/NoGo task
Fujiyama, H., Tandonnet, C., & Summers, J. J. (2011) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/j.1469-8986.2011.01201.x · Cited by 34
“TheMEP elicited by single-pulse TMS is a compound measure that may reflect both cortical and spinal excitability (Hallett, 2000).”
BackgroundMethod
Clinical Factors Underlying the Inter-individual Variability of the Resting Motor Threshold in Navigated Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Motor Mapping
Sollmann, N., Tanigawa, N., Bulubas, L., Sabih, J., Zimmer, C., Ringel, F., Meyer, B., & Krieg, S. (2016) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-016-0536-9 · Cited by 43
“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive technique that, by the use of a magnetic coil, generates a magnetic field, which, in turn, induces a transient electric field that can modulate neurons in their electric activity (Hallett 2000; Ilmoniemi et al. 1999; Najib et al. 2011).”
Background
Zeffiro User Interface for Electromagnetic Brain Imaging: a GPU Accelerated FEM Tool for Forward and Inverse Computations in Matlab
He, Q., Rezaei, A., & Pursiainen, S. (2018) · Neuroinformatics · doi:10.1007/s12021-019-09436-9 · Cited by 42
“t or alternating currents applied through electrodes act as the source of the electromagnetic eld. Such applications include, for example, transcranial electric and magnetic stimulation (tES and tMS) [7, 8] and electrical impedance tomography (EIT) [9]. In tES, the brain activity is evoked through external stimuli, wh…”
Background
Testing a Neurobiological Model of Depersonalization Disorder Using Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
Jay, E., Sierra, M., van den Eynde, F., Rothwell, J., & David, A. (2014) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2013.12.002 · Cited by 42
Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation for Clinical Applications in Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders: An Overview
Machado, S. E. D. C., Arias-Carrión, Ó., Paes, F., Vieira, R. T., Caixeta, L. F., Novaes, F. C., Pessoa, T. M., Almada, L. F., Silva, A. C., & Nardi, A. E. (2013) · Eurasian Journal of Medicine · doi:10.5152/eajm.2013.39 · Cited by 49
“Regardless of its many purposes, TES is painful due to its activation of pain fibers in the scalp [1-3].”
BackgroundMethod
Human Enhancement for the Common Good—Using Neurotechnologies to Improve Eyewitness Memory
Vedder, A., & Klaming, L. (2010) · AJOB Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/21507740.2010.483996 · Cited by 42
“Instead, a coil that is placed on the scalp produces a magnetic field that induces electrical currents in the brain (Hallett 2000; Schutter 2009).”
Background
Changes in motor cortex excitability in facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy.
Lazzaro, V., Oliviero, A., Tonali, P., Felicetti, L., Marco, M. D., Saturno, E., Pilato, F., Pescatori, M., Dileone, M., Pasqualetti, P., et al. (2004) · Neuromuscular Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.nmd.2003.08.002 · Cited by 42
“TMS can excite or inhibit the brain allowing in vivo functional evaluation of excitatory and inhibitory intracortical circuits [15].”
Background
Cognitive Impairment and Brain Reorganization in MS: Underlying Mechanisms and the Role of Neurorehabilitation
Nasios, G., Bakirtzis, C., & Messinis, L. (2020) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2020.00147 · Cited by 41
“Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) refers to the application on the scalp of a changing magnetic field [transcranial magnetic stimulation, TMS; (74)], or low-intensity electrical current [transcranial direct current stimulation, tDCS; (75)] over a short period of time, both of which are methods capable of altering…”
Background
Transcranial Magneto-Acoustic Stimulation Improves Neuroplasticity in Hippocampus of Parkinson’s Disease Model Mice
Wang, Y., Feng, L., Liu, S., Zhou, X.-Q., Yin, T., Liu, Z.-P., & Yang, Z. (2019) · Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1007/s13311-019-00732-5 · Cited by 41
The Future of Technology in Positive Psychology: Methodological Advances in the Science of Well-Being
Yaden, D. B., Eichstaedt, J. C., & Medaglia, J. D. (2018) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00962 · Cited by 44
“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) involves passing magnetic pulses through the skull and into the cortex, which can then hypoor hyper-polarize neurons, thereby allowing for some control over the activation or inhibition of particular cortical regions (Hallett, 2000).”
Background
Adaptive Plasticity in the Healthy Language Network: Implications for Language Recovery after Stroke
Hartwigsen, G. (2016) · Neural Plasticity · doi:10.1155/2016/9674790 · Cited by 62
“A single TMS pulse thereby causes electro-magneto-electric stimulation of neuronal axons, particularly in superficial regions of the cerebral cortex that can temporarily excite or inhibit the stimulated area [12].”
Analysis of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Based on the Surface Integral Equation Formulation
Cvetković, M., Poljak, D., & Haueisen, J. (2015) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2015.2393557 · Cited by 41
Modulation of frequency and duration of repetitive magnetic stimulation affects catecholamine levels and tyrosine hydroxylase activity in human neuroblastoma cells: implication for the antidepressant effect of rTMS.
Shaul, U., Ben-Shachar, D., Karry, R., & Klein, E. (2003) · International Journal of Neuropsychopharmacology · doi:10.1017/s1461145703003493 · Cited by 41
“…that repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) of prefrontal regions affects mood in both normal and depressed subjects (Feinsod et al., 1998; George et al., 1995; Grisaru et al., 1994 ; Grunhaus et al., 2000 ; Hallett, 2000 ; Klein et al., 1999 ; Pascual-Leone et al., 1996a).”
Background
Near-Death Experience, Consciousness, and the Brain: A New Concept about the Continuity of Our Consciousness Based on Recent Scientific Research on Near-Death Experience in Survivors of Cardiac Arrest
van Lommel, P. (2006) · World Futures · doi:10.1080/02604020500412808 · Cited by 71
“Neurophysiologic research is being performed using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), during the course of which localized magnetic fields are produced (Hallett, 2000).”
BackgroundMethod
Modulating cell signalling in vivo with magnetic nanotransducers
Romero, G., Park, J., Koehler, F., Pralle, A., & Anikeeva, P. (2022) · Nature Reviews Methods Primers · doi:10.1038/s43586-022-00170-2 · Cited by 46
Effect of real-time cortical feedback in motor imagery-based mental practice training
Bai, O., Huang, D., Fei, D.-Y., & Kunz, R. D. (2014) · NeuroRehabilitation (Reading, MA) · doi:10.3233/nre-131039 · Cited by 40
Repeatability of Corticospinal and Spinal Measures during Lengthening and Shortening Contractions in the Human Tibialis Anterior Muscle
Tallent, J., Goodall, S., Hortobágyi, T., Gibson, A. S. C., French, D., & Howatson, G. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0035930 · Cited by 40
“Proposed in 1985 [1] as a non-invasive and pain free method to examine transient functional lesions of the brain [2], transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a widely used tool to examine motor cortical physiology [2,3].”
Method
Theta burst transcranial magnetic stimulation is associated with increased EEG synchronization in the stimulated relative to unstimulated cerebral hemisphere.
Schindler, K. A., Nyffeler, T., Wiest, R., Hauf, M., Mathis, J., Hess, C., & Müri, R. (2008) · Neuroscience Letters · doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2008.02.052 · Cited by 40
Facilitating Effect of 15-Hz Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation on Tactile Perceptual Learning
Karim, A., Schüler, A., Hegner, Y. L., Friedel, E., & Godde, B. (2006) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2006.18.9.1577 · Cited by 40
“…repetitive TMS (rTMS) of 1 Hz or less is capable of inhibiting the excitability of the motor cortex (Muellbacher, Ziemann, Boroojerdi, & Hallett, 2000; Chen et al., 1997), whereas high-frequency rTMS (5 Hz and more) is known to facilitate the excitability of the stimulated motor cortex…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Magnetic stimulation of curved nerves
Rotem, A., & Moses, E. (2006) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/tbme.2005.869770 · Cited by 40
Music and brain plasticity
Johansson, B. B. (2006) · European Review · doi:10.1017/s1062798706000056 · Cited by 27
Acupuncture and the modulation of cortical excitability
Lo, Y. L., & Cui, S.-L. (2003) · NeuroReport · doi:10.1097/00001756-200307010-00008 · Cited by 40
Paired-pulse repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation of the human motor cortex
Sommer, M., Tergau, F., Wischer, S., & Paulus, W. (2001) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s002210100791 · Cited by 40
“In the past, the main variable to manipulate inhibition or facilitation has been stimulation frequency, with a consensus that high stimulation frequencies induce a facilitation (Pascual-Leone et al. 1994; Hallett 2000 ) and lower stimulation frequencies an inhibition (Chen et al. 1997; Muellbacher et al. 2000).”
Background
Computational modeling of neurostimulation in brain diseases
Wang, Y., Hutchings, F., & Kaiser, M. (2015) · Progress in brain research · doi:10.1016/bs.pbr.2015.06.012 · Cited by 39
Reduced brain entropy by repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in healthy young adults
Song, D., Chang, D., Zhang, J., Peng, W., Shang, Y., Gao, X., & Wang, Z. (2018) · Brain Imaging and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11682-018-9866-4 · Cited by 39
Visual area V5/hMT+ contributes to perception of tactile motion direction: a TMS study
Amemiya, T., Beck, B., Walsh, V., Gomi, H., & Haggard, P. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep40937 · Cited by 38
Quadriceps cortical adaptations in individuals with an anterior cruciate ligament injury.
Ward, S., Pearce, A., Bennell, K., Peitrosimone, B., & Bryant, A. (2016) · Knee (Oxford) · doi:10.1016/j.knee.2016.04.001 · Cited by 39
“Alternatively the loss of afferent input such as that following amputation [24,49] and immobilization [21] can also induce significant alterations in terms of size, shape and position of the cortical motor representations.”
Background
Electrical Control of Epilepsy
Mogul, D. J., & van Drongelen, W. (2014) · Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1146/annurev-bioeng-071813-104720 · Cited by 41
Excitatory Deep Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation With H-Coil Over the Right Homologous Broca’s Region Improves Naming in Chronic Post-stroke Aphasia
Chieffo, R., Ferrari, F., Battista, P., Houdayer, E., Nuara, A., Alemanno, F., Abutalebi, J., Zangen, A., Comi, G., Cappa, S., et al. (2014) · Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair · doi:10.1177/1545968313508471 · Cited by 39
“It is well known that the effects of rTMS are stronger and longer lasting if several sessions are applied.(59) A single session of rTMS was probably just sufficient to transiently modulate the activity of RH language networks already functional in patients with an extended damage of the contralateral hemisphere.”
Background
Clinical Neurophysiology of Brain Plasticity in Aging Brain
Rossini, P. M., Ferilli, M. N., Rossini, L., & Ferreri, F. (2013) · Current Pharmaceutical Design · doi:10.2174/1381612811319360004 · Cited by 39
Neurorehabilitation: Motor recovery after stroke as an example
Ganguly, K., Byl, N. N., & Abrams, G. (2013) · Annals of Neurology · doi:10.1002/ana.23994 · Cited by 38
Relationship Between Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Percutaneous Electrical Stimulation in Determining the Quadriceps Central Activation Ratio
Norte, G. E., Pietrosimone, B., Hart, J., Hertel, J., & Ingersoll, C. D. (2010) · American Journal of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation · doi:10.1097/phm.0b013e3181f1c00e · Cited by 39
“In addition, TMS has been described as a painless and noninvasive method for exciting neural tissue.(19,20) TMS may be a viable alternative method for assessing quadriceps activation.”
Method
Assessment of cortico-spinal tract impairment in multiple system atrophy using transcranial magnetic stimulation
Eusébio, A., Azulay, J., Witjas, T., Rico, A., & Attarian, S. (2007) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2007.01.004 · Cited by 40
“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the brain is now used since two decades to study the integrity of motor pathways in a variety of diseases such as motor neuron diseases, multiple sclerosis and spinal cord injury (Curra et al., 2002; Di Lazzaro et al., 1999; Hallett, 2000).”
Method
Is rTMS an effective therapeutic strategy that can be used to treat anxiety disorders?
Machado, S. E. D. C., Paes, F., Velasques, B., Teixeira, S. S., Piedade, R. A. M., Ribeiro, P. F. M., Nardi, A. E., & Arias-Carrión, Ó. (2011) · Neuropharmacology · doi:10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.07.024 · Cited by 40
“Basic foundation of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) rTMS is the application to a certain brain area of a train of repeated TMS pulses with the same intensity at a given frequency (Hallett, 2000, 2007).”
Comparison of corticomotor excitability during visuomotor dynamic and static tasks.
Pearce, A., & Kidgell, D. (2010) · Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport · doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2008.12.632 · Cited by 39
Thalamic feedback shapes brain responses evoked by cortical stimulation in mice and humans
Russo, S., Claar, L. D., Furregoni, G., Marks, L. C., Krishnan, G. P., Zauli, F. M., Hassan, G., Solbiati, M., d’Orio, P., Mikulan, E., et al. (2025) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-025-58717-2 · Cited by 54
“In a subset of 5subjects,weacquired6 controlsessions targeting either occipitaland parietal areas(Broadman areas7,17,18, and 19).”
Safety of Clinical Ultrasound Neuromodulation
Radjenovic, S., Dörl, G., Gaal, M., & Beisteiner, R. (2022) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci12101277 · Cited by 38
Effect of Transcutaneous Magnetic Stimulation in Patients With Ventricular Tachycardia Storm: A Randomized Clinical Trial.
Markman, T., Pothineni, N., Zghaib, T., Smietana, J., McBride, D., Amankwah, N., Linn, K. A., Kumareswaran, R., Hyman, M., Arkles, J., et al. (2022) · JAMA cardiology · doi:10.1001/jamacardio.2021.6000 · Cited by 38
Mind-wandering: mechanistic insights from lesion, tDCS, and iEEG
Kam, J. W. Y., Mittner, M., & Knight, R. T. (2022) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2021.12.005 · Cited by 44
What has transcranial magnetic stimulation taught us about neural adaptations to strength training? A brief review.
Kidgell, D., & Pearce, A. (2011) · Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research · doi:10.1519/jsc.0b013e318212de69 · Cited by 38
The role of the human ventral premotor cortex in counting successive stimuli
Kansaku, K., Carver, B., Johnson, A., Matsuda, K., Sadato, N., & Hallett, M. (2007) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-006-0736-8 · Cited by 38
“In order to determine the functional relevance of the area (Hallett 2000), we used TMS.”
Self-citation
Synchronization of motor unit firings: an epiphenomenon of firing rate characteristics not common inputs.
Kline, J., & Luca, C. D. D. (2016) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00452.2015 · Cited by 38
“Yet, it is well documented in these studies, among others, that the quantity of cortical neurons, the number of cortico-spinal projections, and the excitability of inputs to motoneurons are all reduced with increasing age (Eisen et al. 1996; Hallett 2000; Henderson et al. 1980; Oliviero et al. 2006; Rossini et al. 199…”
BackgroundResult

Authors: Hallett, M.
Affiliations: National Institutes of Health (US)
Corresponding author: Hallett, Mark
ORCID: Hallett, Mark
Venue: Nature
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2000-07
Volume: 406
Issue: 6792
Pages: 147-150
ISSN: 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
1476-4687
DOI: 10.1038/35018000
OpenAlex: W2129291496
Cited by: 1,603
References: 42
Citations by year: 2026: 44 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 84 · 2021: 87 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 81 · 2017: 46 · 2016: 80 · 2015: 85 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 72 · 2012: 71
FWCI: 4.67
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Nature (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Ultrasound and Hyperthermia Applications
Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced MRI Techniques and Applications
Keywords: transcranial magnetic stimulation, non-invasive brain stimulation, motor cortex, occipital cortex, muscle twitch, scotoma, brain therapy
MeSH terms: Brain, Brain Mapping, Cerebral Cortex, Forecasting, Humans, Nervous System Diseases, Neuronal Plasticity, Evoked Potentials, Motor, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation and the human brain

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