Cited by 1,603Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation StudiesUltrasound and Hyperthermia ApplicationsAdvanced MRI Techniques and Applications

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation and the human brain

Hallett, Mark·2000·Nature

DOI 10.1038/35018000

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Abstract

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is rapidly developing as a powerful, non-invasive tool for studying the human brain. A pulsed magnetic field creates current flow in the brain and can temporarily excite or inhibit specific areas. TMS of motor cortex can produce a muscle twitch or block movement; TMS of occipital cortex can produce visual phosphenes or scotomas. TMS can also alter the functioning of the brain beyond the time of stimulation, offering potential for therapy.

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Depression of motor cortex excitability by low-frequency transcranial magnetic stimulation
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Applications of transcranial magnetic stimulation in sleep medicine.
Civardi, C., Collini, A., Monaco, F., & Cantello, R. (2009) · Sleep Medicine Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.smrv.2008.04.001 · Cited by 32
“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a widely used non-invasive neurophysiological technique able to assess painlessly and safely motor cortex excitability.(1) Since the last 20 years, many researchers investigated the responses to electromagnetic stimulation of the primary motor cortex in a number of different…”
Background
Assessing and inducing neuroplasticity with transcranial magnetic stimulation and robotics for motor function.
O'Malley, M., Ro, T., & Levin, H. (2006) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2006.08.332 · Cited by 32
“TMS is a relatively new, noninvasive technique that prouces transient disruptions in brain activity.(6-9) Although its oots date back to over a century ago when several scientists ttempted to stimulate the brain with a magnetic pulse,(10-13) hese early attempts of magnetic stimulation generated through arious differen…”
Background
One-Hertz transcranial magnetic stimulation over the frontal eye field induces lasting inhibition of saccade triggering
Nyffeler, T., Wurtz, P., Pflugshaupt, T., von Wartburg, R., Lüthi, M., Hess, C., & Müri, R. (2006) · NeuroReport · doi:10.1097/01.wnr.0000199468.39659.bf · Cited by 32
“These stimulation parameters have been shown to produce effects in the motor cortex that outlast stimulation by several minutes [11].”
Background
Cortical Plasticity Following Upper Extremity Injury and Reconstruction
Anastakis, D. J., Chen, R. E., Davis, K. D., & Mikulis, D. J. (2005) · Clinics in Plastic Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.cps.2005.05.008 · Cited by 34
“Cortical plasticity in humans is studied using noninvasive techniques, such as TMS [13,14], electro-”
BackgroundMethod
Sustained muscle contractions maintained by autonomous neuronal activity within the human spinal cord.
Nozaki, D., Kawashima, N., Aramaki, Y., Akai, M., Nakazawa, K., Nakajima, Y., & Yano, H. (2003) · Journal of Neurophysiology · doi:10.1152/jn.00200.2003 · Cited by 32
“be smaller during the self-sustained muscle contractions than during voluntary plantarflexion due to the lower excitability of M1 (Hallett 2000) (assuming equal muscle activity levels).”
BackgroundMethod
Non-invasive brain stimulation for patients and healthy subjects: Current challenges and future perspectives
Mattioli, F., Maglianella, V., D'Antonio, S., Trimarco, E., & Caligiore, D. (2023) · Journal of the Neurological Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.jns.2023.122825 · Cited by 43
“TMS consists in the induction of a weak current at very high intensity (several thousand ampere) in a copper wire coil, which in turn produces a magnetic field that can reach up to about 2 Tesla and lasts for about 100 ms [172].”
Transcranial static magnetic stimulation over the motor cortex can facilitate the contralateral cortical excitability in human
Takamatsu, Y., Koganemaru, S., Watanabe, T., Shibata, S., Yukawa, Y., Minakuchi, M., Shimomura, R., & Mima, T. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-84823-4 · Cited by 31
Increased Low-Frequency Resting-State Brain Activity by High-Frequency Repetitive TMS on the Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex
Xue, S., Guo, Y., Peng, W., Zhang, J., Chang, D., Zang, Y., & Wang, Z. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.02266 · Cited by 32
Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Post Stroke Aphasia and Primary Progressive Aphasia: Current Knowledge and Future Clinical Applications
Sebastian, R., Tsapkini, K., & Tippett, D. (2016) · NeuroRehabilitation (Reading, MA) · doi:10.3233/nre-161346 · Cited by 31
Transcranial magnetic stimulation and transcranial direct current stimulation appear to be safe neuromodulatory techniques useful in the treatment of anxiety disorders and other neuropsychiatric disorders
Iannone, A., Cruz, A. P. D. M., Brasil-Neto, J., & Boechat-Barros, R. (2016) · Arquivos de Neuro-Psiquiatria · doi:10.1590/0004-282x20160115 · Cited by 31
TMS-evoked N100 responses as a prognostic factor in acute stroke.
Manganotti, P., Acler, M., Masiero, S., & Felice, A. D. (2015) · Functional Neurology · doi:10.11138/fneur/2015.30.2.125 · Cited by 31
Suppression of Subthalamic Nucleus Activity by Micromagnetic Stimulation
Lee, S. W., & Fried, S. I. (2014) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering · doi:10.1109/tnsre.2014.2348415 · Cited by 35
“, migraine headaches, strokes, and tinnitus) [32]–[35].”
Effect of intermittent theta‐burst stimulation on akinesia and sensorimotor integration in patients with Parkinson’s disease
Degardin, A., Devos, D., Defebvre, L., Destée, A., Plomhause, L., Derambure, P., & Devanne, H. (2012) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.08158.x · Cited by 31
“Furthermore, HF rTMS is known to induce changes in the excitability of spatially distant cortical areas that are functionally interconnected with the targeted zone (Hallett, 2000).”
Background
Resting motor threshold in idiopathic generalized epilepsies: a systematic review with meta-analysis.
Brigo, F., Storti, M., Benedetti, M., Rossini, F., Nardone, R., Tezzon, F., Fiaschi, A., Bongiovanni, L., & Manganotti, P. (2012) · Epilepsy Research · doi:10.1016/j.eplepsyres.2012.03.020 · Cited by 31
“For example, compared with a figuref-eight coil, a circular coil stimulates a larger cortical area Cohen et al., 1990; Hallett, 2000), and may generate, at east theoretically, a stronger electric current. trengths and limitations of the review revious narrative reviews have evaluated the motor…”
Background
Altered Motor Cortex Excitability to Magnetic Stimulation in Alcohol Withdrawal Syndrome
Nardone, R., Bergmann, J., Kronbichler, M., Caleri, F., Lochner, P., Tezzon, F., Ladurner, G., & Golaszewski, S. M. (2010) · Alcoholism Clinical and Experimental Research · doi:10.1111/j.1530-0277.2009.01131.x · Cited by 30
Reduced short latency afferent inhibition in patients with Down syndrome and Alzheimer-type dementia.
Nardone, R., Marth, R., Ausserer, H., Bratti, A., & Tezzon, F. (2006) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2006.07.134 · Cited by 31
Visual restoration in cortical blindness: Insights from natural and TMS-induced blindsight
Ro, T., & Rafal, R. (2006) · Neuropsychological Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09602010500435989 · Cited by 31
“We have been examining whether transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) (for reviews on TMS, see Hallett, 2000; Jahanshahi & Rothwell, 2000; Robertson, Theoret, & Pascual-Leone, 2003; Walsh & Cowey, 2000) might be used to consistently induce blindsight-like behaviour in normal observers.”
Background
The Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) Device and Foundational Techniques
Rotenberg, A., Horvath, J., & Pascual-Leone, Á. (2014) · Neuromethods · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0879-0_1 · Cited by 31
Inducing out-of-body experiences
Blanke, O., & Thut, G. (2007) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198568773.003.0027 · Cited by 21
BCI system with lower-limb robot improves rehabilitation in spinal cord injury patients through short-term training: a pilot study
Cui, Z., Li, Y., Huang, S., Wu, X., Fu, X., Liu, F., Wan, X., Wang, X., Zhang, Y., Qiu, H., et al. (2022) · Cognitive Neurodynamics · doi:10.1007/s11571-022-09801-6 · Cited by 34
“…University, Hangzhou, China 2 The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China 3 Qiushi Academy for Advanced Studies, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China magnetic stimulation (TMS) can produce top-down stimulation of the SCI area (Hallett 2000; Goudman et al. 2019).”
Background
Motor Recovery: How Rehabilitation Techniques and Technologies Can Enhance Recovery and Neuroplasticity
Braun, R. G., & Wittenberg, G. F. (2021) · Seminars in Neurology · doi:10.1055/s-0041-1725138 · Cited by 38
The Effect of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation on Spasticity in Patients with Multiple Sclerosis
Şan, A., Yılmaz, B., & Kesikburun, S. (2019) · Journal of Clinical Neurology · doi:10.3988/jcn.2019.15.4.461 · Cited by 30
Modulation of long-term potentiation-like cortical plasticity in the healthy brain with low frequency-pulsed electromagnetic fields
Premi, E., Benussi, A., Gatta, A. L., Visconti, S., Costa, A., Gilberti, N., Cantoni, V., Padovani, A., Borroni, B., & Magoni, M. (2018) · BMC Neuroscience · doi:10.1186/s12868-018-0434-z · Cited by 30
“All these approaches induce electric currents to obtain a depolarization in the stimulated brain regions [6, 7].”
Background
Application of noninvasive brain stimulation for post‐stroke dysphagia rehabilitation
Wang, Z., Song, W.-Q., & Wang, L. (2016) · Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.kjms.2016.11.007 · Cited by 30
“Depending on the stimulation parameters, TMS can excite or inhibit the brain, thus allowing the functional mapping of cortical regions and the creation of transient functional lesions [9].”
Background
Post-Traumatic, Drug-Resistant Epilepsy and Review of Seizure Control Outcomes from Blinded, Randomized Controlled Trials of Brain Stimulation Treatments for Drug-Resistant Epilepsy
Larkin, M. B., Meyer, R. M., Szuflita, N. S., Severson, M. A., & Levine, Z. T. (2016) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.744 · Cited by 30
“In rTMS, an alternating current is run through a wire coil to create a fluctuating magnetic field that is then focused on the area of interest in the brain, inducing intracranial electrical currents [35].”
Background
BDNF treatment and extended recovery from optic nerve trauma in the cat.
Weber, A. J., & Harman, C. D. (2013) · Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science · doi:10.1167/iovs.13-12683 · Cited by 30
Adaptation controls synchrony and cluster states of coupled threshold-model neurons
Ladenbauer, J., Lehnert, J., Rankoohi, H., Dahms, T., Schöll, E., & Obermayer, K. (2013) · Physical Review E · doi:10.1103/physreve.88.042713 · Cited by 28
“Another interesting application of our approach in neuroscience is pulsed brain stimulation, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation [54] or deep brain stimulation [55], where our method could provide general results, e.”
Method
The Effect of Pulsed Magnetic Field on the Molecular Uptake and Medium Conductivity of Leukemia Cell
Shankayi, Z., Firoozabadi, S., & Mansurian, M. G. (2013) · Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics · doi:10.1007/s12013-012-9422-6 · Cited by 30
Stroke rehabilitation using noninvasive cortical stimulation: hemispatial neglect
Mylius, V., Ayache, S., Zouari, H., Aoun-Sebaïti, M., Farhat, W., & Lefaucheur, J. (2012) · Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics · doi:10.1586/ern.12.78 · Cited by 30
A Review of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in the in vivo Functional Evaluation of Central Cholinergic Circuits in Dementia
Nardone, R., Golaszewski, S., Ladurner, G., Tezzon, F., & Trinka, E. (2011) · Dementia and Geriatric Cognitive Disorders · doi:10.1159/000330016 · Cited by 30
“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), a non-invasive method for the evaluation of excitatory/inhibitory characteristics of the motor cortex, allows direct investigation of motor cortex function [”
Method
Neural Correlates of the Contextual Interference Effect in Motor Learning: A Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Investigation
Lin, C., Winstein, C., Fisher, B. E., & Wu, A. (2010) · Journal of Motor Behavior · doi:10.1080/00222895.2010.492720 · Cited by 30
“A suprathreshold TMS intensity (120% of resting motor threshold) was chosen in order to introduce a significant perturbation to cortical motor activity centered on and around M1 ( Baraduc, Lang, Rothwell, & Wolpert, 2004 ; Della-Maggiore, Malfait, Ostry, & Paus, 2004 ; Hashimoto, Inaba, Matsumura, & Naito, 2004 ).”
Method
Spontaneous Fluctuations in Oscillatory Brain State Cause Differences in Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Effects Within and Between Individuals
Janssens, S. E. W., & Sack, A. T. (2021) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2021.802244 · Cited by 27
“When the TMS coil was placed on the scalp above the motor cortex, movements could be induced in contralateral body parts, and the muscles’ responses could be measured using electromyography (EMG) (Rothwell et al., 1999; Hallett, 2000, 2007).”
Method
Cerebral plasticity as the basis for upper limb recovery following brain damage
Lotze, M., Ladda, A. M., & Stephan, K. M. (2019) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.01.027 · Cited by 31
“Evoking motor potentials by means of TMS can help us to understand corticospinal mechanisms, can provide data on cortical excitability or inhibition, and also enables us to modulate cortical excitability or even induce temporal lesions (overview in Hallett, 2000).”
Motor Preparation for Action Inhibition: A Review of Single Pulse TMS Studies Using the Go/NoGo Paradigm
Ficarella, S. C., & Battelli, L. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00340 · Cited by 23
“MEPs reflect the activation of both spinal and cortical neurons (Hallett, 2000), dependent on both inhibitory and excitatory inputs to M1 (Rothwell et al., 1991; Reis et al., 2008).”
Background
Effects of temperature and electromagnetic induction on action potential of Hodgkin–Huxley model
Lu, L., Kirunda, J. B., Xu, Y., Kang, W., Ye, R., Zhan, X., & Jia, Y. (2018) · The European Physical Journal Special Topics · doi:10.1140/epjst/e2018-700140-1 · Cited by 29
Skeptical approaches concerning the effect of exposure to electromagnetic fields on brain hormones and enzyme activities
Warille, A. A., Altun, G., Elamin, A. A., Kaplan, A. A., Mohamed, H., Yurt, K. K., & Elhaj, A. E. (2017) · Journal of Microscopy and Ultrastructure · doi:10.1016/j.jmau.2017.09.002 · Cited by 29
Implementing Functional Preoperative Mapping in the Clinical Routine of a Neurosurgical Department: Technical Note.
Sollmann, N., Meyer, B., & Krieg, S. (2017) · World Neurosurgery · doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2017.03.114 · Cited by 29
Different Cortical Mechanisms for Spatial vs. Feature-Based Attentional Selection in Visual Working Memory
Heuer, A., Schubö, A., & Crawford, J. D. (2016) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2016.00415 · Cited by 29
“On-line transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) can transiently disrupt activity in a localized brain region, thereby establishing a causal, spatiotemporal link between this region and cognitive functions engaged at that point in the task (e.g., Hallett, 2000; Bolognini and Ro, 2010).”
Background
The injectable neurostimulator: an emerging therapeutic device
Li, X., Serdijn, W. A., Zheng, W., Tian, Y., & Zhang, B. (2015) · Trends in biotechnology · doi:10.1016/j.tibtech.2015.04.001 · Cited by 35
Assessment of corticospinal excitability after traumatic spinal cord injury using MEP recruitment curves: a preliminary TMS study
Nardone, R., Höller, Y., Thomschewski, A., Bathke, A., Ellis, A. R., Golaszewski, S., Brigo, F., & Trinka, E. (2015) · Spinal Cord · doi:10.1038/sc.2015.12 · Cited by 29
Non-invasive brain stimulation in the functional evaluation of alcohol effects and in the treatment of alcohol craving: A review
Nardone, R., Bergmann, J., Christova, M., Lochner, P., Tezzon, F., Golaszewski, S. M., Trinka, E., & Brigo, F. (2012) · Neuroscience Research · doi:10.1016/j.neures.2012.08.003 · Cited by 30
The effect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on fear extinction in rats.
Baek, K., Chae, J.-H., & Jeong, J.-W. (2012) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.09.050 · Cited by 29
“…is a noninvasive brain stimulation technique that induces electric currents in the brain tissue using a brief, rapidly time-varying magnetic field pulse (magnitude up to 1.0 4.0 Tesla, rise time 100 s), ased on Faraday’s electromagnetic induction principle George and Belmaker, 2000; Hallett, 2000).”
BackgroundInfluential
Interhemispheric Connectivity Influences the Degree of Modulation of TMS-Induced Effects during Auditory Processing
Andoh, J., & Zatorre, R. (2011) · Front. Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00161 · Cited by 29
“, and Hallett, M. (2005). Transcranial magnetic stimulation of deep brain regions: evidence for efficacy of the H-coil.”
Background
Burst transcranial magnetic stimulation: which tinnitus characteristics influence the amount of transient tinnitus suppression?
Vanneste, S., Plazier, M., van der Loo, E. M., Ost, J., van de Heyning, P., & Ridder, D. D. (2010) · European Journal of Neurology · doi:10.1111/j.1468-1331.2010.02987.x · Cited by 29
“lemniscal and extralemniscal system [11] and TMS has effect on remote areas functionally connected with the stimulated area [7,8], tinnitus laterality might be of less”
Background
Functional involvement of central nervous system at high altitude
Miscio, G., Milano, E., Aguilar, J., Savia, G., Foffani, G., Mauro, A., Mordillo‐Mateos, L., Romero-Ganuza, J., & Oliviero, A. (2009) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-009-1729-1 · Cited by 28
“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive neurophysiological method that can be used to study the excitability of the human cortex (Hallett 2000).”
BackgroundMethod
Abnormal intracortical facilitation in early-stage Huntington’s disease
Nardone, R., Lochner, P., Marth, R., Ausserer, H., Bratti, A., & Tezzon, F. (2007) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2007.01.009 · Cited by 34
“The physiological meaning of these TMS measures of motor cortex excitability has been summarized in recent reviews (Hallett, 2000; Ziemann, 2002; Rothwell, 2003).”
Background
Cortical hyperexcitability in post-traumatic stress disorder secondary to minor accidental head trauma: a neurophysiologic study
Centonze, D., Palmieri, M. G., Boffa, L., Pierantozzi, M., Stanzione, P., Brusa, L., Marciani, M. G., Siracusano, A., Bernardi, G., & Caramia, M. D. (2005) · Journal of Psychiatry and Neuroscience · doi:10.1139/jpn.0519 · Cited by 28
Effects of antidepressant pharmacotherapy after repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation in major depression: an open follow-up study.
Schüle, C., Zwanzger, P., Baghai, T., Mikhaiel, P., Thoma, H., Möller, H., Rupprecht, R., & Padberg, F. (2003) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3956(02)00101-2 · Cited by 29
Relation between responses to repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation and partial sleep deprivation in major depression.
Padberg, F., Schüle, C., Zwanzger, P., Baghai, T., Ella, R., Mikhaiel, P., Hampel, H., Möller, H., & Rupprecht, R. (2002) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/s0022-3956(01)00059-0 · Cited by 29
Photoacoustic: A Versatile Nongenetic Method for High-Precision Neuromodulation
Du, Z., Chen, G., Li, Y., Zheng, N., Cheng, J., & Yang, C. (2024) · Accounts of Chemical Research · doi:10.1021/acs.accounts.4c00119 · Cited by 27
Magnetoelectric Nanodiscs Enable Wireless Transgene-Free Neuromodulation
Kim, Y. J., Driscoll, N., Kent, N., Paniagua, E. V., Tabet, A., Koehler, F., Manthey, M., Sahasrabudhe, A., Signorelli, L., Gregurec, D., et al. (2023) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/2023.12.24.573272 · Cited by 28

Authors: Hallett, M.
Affiliations: National Institutes of Health (US)
Corresponding author: Hallett, Mark
ORCID: Hallett, Mark
Venue: Nature
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2000-07
Volume: 406
Issue: 6792
Pages: 147-150
ISSN: 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
1476-4687
DOI: 10.1038/35018000
OpenAlex: W2129291496
Cited by: 1,603
References: 42
Citations by year: 2026: 44 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 84 · 2021: 87 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 81 · 2017: 46 · 2016: 80 · 2015: 85 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 72 · 2012: 71
FWCI: 4.67
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Nature (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Ultrasound and Hyperthermia Applications
Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced MRI Techniques and Applications
Keywords: transcranial magnetic stimulation, non-invasive brain stimulation, motor cortex, occipital cortex, muscle twitch, scotoma, brain therapy
MeSH terms: Brain, Brain Mapping, Cerebral Cortex, Forecasting, Humans, Nervous System Diseases, Neuronal Plasticity, Evoked Potentials, Motor, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation and the human brain

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