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Transcranial magnetic stimulation and the human brain
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is rapidly developing as a powerful, non-invasive tool for studying the human brain. A pulsed magnetic field creates current flow in the brain and can temporarily excite or inhibit specific areas. TMS of motor cortex can produce a muscle twitch or block movement; TMS of occipital cortex can produce visual phosphenes or scotomas. TMS can also alter the functioning of the brain beyond the time of stimulation, offering potential for therapy.
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“We evaluated the following TMS measures: 1) resting and active motor threshold, which reflect the intrinsic and extrinsically modulated excitability properties ofcorticospinal neurons [4–5]; 2) central motor conduction time, which reflects the integrity of the corticospinal tract [ 4 ]; 3) intracortical inhibition to…”
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Dynamic Multi-Channel TMS With Reconfigurable Coil
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“Plasticity in the human cortex involves the functional reorg anization of synaptic connections in an effort to change or adapt throughout life and is characterized by processes involved in learning, memory and neural repair.(103) Evidence suggests that neural plasticity may also be a corollary of cortical inhibition,…”
BackgroundDoes the Recruitment of Excitation and Inhibition in the Motor Cortex Differ?
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“Similarly, recruitment curves of the duration of the silent period in the EMG of tonically active muscles during TMS (cortical silent period, CSP) can be generated (Kimiskidis et al., 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialNovel Therapeutic Approaches to the Treatment of Chronic Abdominal Visceral Pain
Patrizi, F., Freedman, S., Pascual-Leone, Á., & Fregni, F. (2006) · TheScientificWorldJournal · doi:10.1100/tsw.2006.98 · Cited by 27
“Several animal and human studies establish that rTMS can modulate brain cortex activity noninvasively[110,111,112,113,114,115].”
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“Primary human studies trying to elicit LTP through rTMS have produced inconsistent results, either failed to produce any cortical change or change that were not significantly long lasting to be LTP (Hallett, 2000; Madea, Keenan, Tormos, Topka, & Pascal-Leone, 2000).”
ResultFox, K. C. R., Andrews‐Hanna, J. R., & Kalina Christoff, A. (2016) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.08.020 · Cited by 27
“A recently-developed complement to classic lesion studies is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), which allows for reversible ‘lesions’ of circumscribed brain areas by using pulsed magnetic fields to transiently inhibit neuronal activity (Hallett, 2000).”
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“…transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a non-invasive technique, which activates cerebral tissues through strong impulses of magnetic stimulation generated by a conducting coil (Barker et al., 1985). rTMS can affect brain functions, including attention, memory and speech, etc. (Hallett, 2000).”
BackgroundEffect of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on saccades in depression: a pilot study.
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“Recently, repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has been introduced as a therapeutic tool in neurological and psychiatric diseases (Hallett, 2000). As therapeutic rTMS is frequently 5 (2005) 113–119”
MethodTemporal dynamics of parietal cortex involvement in visual search.
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“This type of coil is often selected for more superficial or generalized stimulations in a broader brain region [126].”
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“A coil close to the skull produces magnetic fields that induce electric fields in the adjacent brain tissue, triggering action potentials[6] (Figure 1).”
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“On the other hand, brain stimulation can induce LTP-like changes for synaptic strength in stimulated areas (Pascual-Leone et al., 1994; Hallett, 2000; Fritsch et al., 2010; Dayan et al., 2013; Karabanov et al., 2015).”
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“sive technique of applying magnetic fields to the brain through the intact scalp.(3) Repetitive magnetic fields gen-”
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“Most relevant to our study, rTMS is a noninvasive technique of applying magnetic fields to the brain through the intact scalp (Hallett, 2000).”
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“Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation uses a non-invasive and relatively painless tool to stimulate the human brain in vivo using very strong, pulsed magnetic fields [8] .”
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Why do some promising brain-stimulation devices fail the next steps of clinical development?
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“A pulsed magnetic field can be employed to generate an electric current in the brain, which can temporarily stimulate or inhibit specific areas[11].”
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“TMS involves administering brief magnetic pulses through a magnetic coil placed on the scalp in order to induce transient changes in activity in the underlying region of the cortex (Hallett 2000).”
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“Long-term depression (LTD)- or depotentiation-like mechanisms have been suggested to be responsible for these rTMS effects (Chen et al., 1997; Hallett, 2000; Kobayashi and PascualLeone, 2003; Tokay et al., 2009; Dayan et al., 2013).”
BackgroundLi, W., Yang, Y., Ye, Q., Yang, B., & Wang, Z.-R. (2007) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2006.11.002 · Cited by 24
Cortical excitability in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: transcranial magnetic stimulation study.
Grippo, A., Carrai, R., Romagnoli, I., Lanini, B., Bianchi, R., Gigliotti, F., & Scano, G. (2005) · Sleep · doi:10.1093/sleep/28.12.1547 · Cited by 24
Reliability of the motor evoked potentials elicited through magnetic stimulation at three sites.
Lefebvre, R., Pépin, A., Louis, P.-F., & Boucher, J. (2004) · Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics · doi:10.1016/j.jmpt.2003.12.004 · Cited by 24
Dachy, B., Biltiau, E., Bouillot, E., Dan, B., & Deltenre, P. (2003) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s1388-2457(03)00252-9 · Cited by 24
“As regard the spinal level, it is generally considered that an initial subthreshold conditioning stimulus has no influence on the descending pathways (Hallett, 2000).”
BackgroundOlanzapine-sertraline combination in schizophrenia with obsessive-compulsive disorder.
Poyurovsky, M., Kurs, R., & Weizman, A. (2003) · Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.v64n0518c · Cited by 24
Brodbeck, V., Thut, G., Spinelli, L., Romei, V., Tyrand, R., Michel, C., & Seeck, M. (2009) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-009-0125-2 · Cited by 24
“In contrast to single- and paired-pulse TMS, rTMS can induce changes of cortical excitability and neuronal activity outlasting the duration of the stimulation itself (Hallett 2000; Silvanto and Pascual-Leone 2008) Stimulation with frequencies of 1 Hz and lower decreases cortical excit-”
BackgroundRepetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS): new tool, new therapy and new hope for ADHD
Acosta, M. T., & Leon‐Sarmiento, F. E. (2003) · Current Medical Research and Opinion · doi:10.1185/030079903125001541 · Cited by 28
“among others.[39-43] Regarding ADHD specifically, TMS seems to be an ideal method for studying the maturational process of the motor pathways since it clearly excites the corticomotoneuronal system presumed to be involved in this disorder.”
Maximizing brain networks engagement via individualized connectome-wide target search
Menardi, A., Momi, D., Vallesi, A., Barabási, A.-Ĺ., Towlson, E. K., & Santarnecchi, E. (2022) · Brain stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2022.09.011 · Cited by 22
“These pulses generate underlying secondary electrical currents capable of causing neural discharges [12].”
BackgroundThe Role of Iconic Gestures in Speech Comprehension: An Overview of Various Methodologies
Arachchige, K. K., Loureiro, I. S., Blekić, W., Rossignol, M., & Lefèbvre, L. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.634074 · Cited by 29
“This highlights the cortical areas involved in a task and the temporality at which this contribution takes place (Hallett, 2000) and demonstrates a causal relationship between a neural process and the behavior observed on the task (Rossini and Rossi, 2007).”
BackgroundLiu, D., Zhao, S., Luo, X., & Yuan, Y. (2021) · doi:10.1016/j.chaos.2020.110635 · Cited by 23
Pearce, A. J., Kidgell, D. J., Frazer, A. K., King, D. A., Buckland, M. E., & Tommerdahl, M. (2019) · Somatosensory & Motor Research · doi:10.1080/08990220.2019.1699045 · Cited by 25
“1985, 1986) single and paired-pulse TMS has demonstrated reliability, and gained popularity, in measuring the physiology of the central nervous system in both healthy and diseased populations, (Hallett 2000; Kobayashi and Pascual-Leone 2003).”
BackgroundKim, J. U., Weisenbach, S., & Zald, D. (2018) · International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1002/gps.4982 · Cited by 23
“TMS is a neurophysiological technique that allows the induction of a current in the brain using a magnetic field to pass the scalp and the skull safely.(64) InTMS, depending on the parameters used such as frequency and pattern of pulses delivered, one can depolarize or hyperpolarize the underlying cortex of the subjec…”
MethodCacace, A., Hu, J.-N., Romero, S., Xuan, Y., Burkard, R., & Tyler, R. (2017) · Hearing Research · doi:10.1016/j.heares.2017.10.017 · Cited by 23
“The figure-of-eight coil was used because it produced a more focal activation in comparison to other coil types available at the time (Hallett, 2000).”
Benefits of Deep Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Alzheimer Disease
Avirame, K., Stehberg, J., & Todder, D. (2015) · Journal of Ect · doi:10.1097/yct.0000000000000286 · Cited by 24
“Decades of research about TMS provide a substantial amount of knowledge about its underlying neurophysiological mechanisms.(18,19) In clinical contexts, TMS is often used in a repetitive mode (rTMS), in which trains of suprathreshold pulses are delivered in high frequency over target regions during multiple sessions.”
BackgroundRepetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) for treatment of chronic tinnitus.
Minami, S., Shinden, S., Okamoto, Y., Watada, Y., Watabe, T., Oishi, N., Kanzaki, S., Saito, H., Inoue, Y., & Ogawa, K. (2011) · Auris, nasus, larynx · doi:10.1016/j.anl.2010.09.007 · Cited by 23
“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a method of stimulating the brain through the intact scalp without causing pain at the surface [7].”
MethodDissociation of neural mechanisms underlying orientation processing in humans
Ling, S., Pearson, J., & Blake, R. (2009) · Current Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.06.069 · Cited by 23
“To probe the neural concomitants of orientation processing in humans, we employed repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), which can significantly attenuate neuronal spiking activity, hemodynamic responses, and local field potentials within a focused cortical region [7, 8].”
Noh, T.-S., Kyong, J.-S., Park, M. K., Lee, J. H., Oh, S. H., & Suh, M. (2020) · Brain Topography · doi:10.1007/s10548-020-00797-y · Cited by 23
Understanding Cortical Dysfunction in Schizophrenia With TMS/EEG
Vittala, A., Murphy, N., Maheshwari, A., & Krishnan, V. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2020.00554 · Cited by 19
“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) has emerged as a powerful tool to non-invasively study cortical physiology in humans (Hallett, 2000; Valero-Cabré et al., 2017).”
MethodModeling motor-evoked potentials from neural field simulations of transcranial magnetic stimulation
Wilson, M., Moezzi, B., & Rogasch, N. (2019) · bioRxiv · doi:10.1101/847830 · Cited by 22
Manipulation of Human Verticality Using High-Definition Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation
Santos, T. E., Favoretto, D. B., Toostani, I. G., Nascimento, D., Rimoli, B., Bergonzoni, E., Lemos, T. W., Truong, D., Delbem, A., Makkiabadi, B., et al. (2018) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2018.00825 · Cited by 22
Jodoin, M., Rouleau, D. M., Larson-Dupuis, C., Gosselin, N., & Beaumont, L. D. (2017) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.07.005 · Cited by 27
Mineo, L., Concerto, C., Patel, D., Mayorga, T., Chusid, E., Infortuna, C., Aguglia, E., Sarraf, Y., & Battaglia, F. (2017) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.04.016 · Cited by 22
“studies it is possible to study several TMS parameters: resting motor threshold (RMT) reflects the membrane excitability of cortical neurons and is modulated by voltage-gated sodium or calcium- channel blockers; amplitudes of motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) reflect the excitability of the corticospinal tract; cortical…”
The Cortex-based Alignment Approach to TMS Coil Positioning
Duecker, F., Frost, M. A., de Graaf, T. D., Graewe, B., Jacobs, C., Goebel, R., & Sack, A. (2014) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn_a_00635 · Cited by 22
“TMS is a noninvasive brain interference technique that is widely used to investigate brain – behavior relationships in the healthy and diseased human brain (Sack, 2006; Hallett, 2000; Pascual-Leone, Walsh, & Rothwell, 2000; Walsh & Cowey, 2000).”
MethodLong-latency TMS-evoked potentials during motor execution and inhibition
Yamanaka, K., Kadota, H., & Nozaki, D. (2013) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00751 · Cited by 19
““fnhum-07-00751” — 2013/11/11 — 19:10 — page 1 — #1 ORIGINAL RESEARCH ARTICLE published: 12 November 2013 doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00751 Long-latencyTMS-evoked potentials during motor execution and inhibition”
InfluentialA long-lasting wireless stimulator for small mammals
Hentall, I. D. (2013) · Frontiers in Neuroengineering · doi:10.3389/fneng.2013.00008 · Cited by 22
“More elaborate controls can use instantaneously transmitted commands (Millard and Shepherd, 2007; Harnack et al., 2008) or set-and-go methods, in which parameters must be modified by temporarily halting the experiment (Arfin et al., 2009; de Haas et al., 2012).”
BackgroundMethodNegative emotion can enhance human motor cortical plasticity
Koganemaru, S., Domen, K., Fukuyama, H., & Mima, T. (2012) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2012.08098.x · Cited by 26
Fregni, F., Schachter, S., & Pascual-Leone, Á. (2005) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2005.06.004 · Cited by 22
“The continuous change in the electrical current that flows through the coil can generate a timevarying magnetic field that passes unimpeded through skin and bones, generating an electric current inside the skull, where it can be focused and restricted to small areas depending on the coil geometry and shape [41].”
BackgroundBrain dysfunction in uremia: a question of cortical hyperexcitability?
Battaglia, F., Quartarone, A., Bagnato, S., Rizzo, V., Morgante, F., Floccari, F., Romeo, A., Santangelo, A., Grasso, G., Girlanda, P., et al. (2005) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/j.clinph.2005.02.016 · Cited by 25
“TMS is a non-invasive tool for studying the human brain and can be used to measure different parameters of cortical excitability within the human motor cortex (Hallett, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodClozapine and venous thromboembolism: further evidence.
Selten, J., & Büller, H. (2003) · Journal of Clinical Psychiatry · doi:10.4088/jcp.v64n0518a · Cited by 22
Effect of multiple subpial transection on motor cortical excitability in cortical dysgenesis.
Shimizu, T., Maehara, T., Hino, T., Komori, T., Shimizu, H., Yagishita, A., Yokota, T., Hirai, S., & Rossini, P. M. (2001) · Brain : a journal of neurology · doi:10.1093/brain/124.7.1336 · Cited by 22
Motor cortical circuits in Parkinson disease and dystonia
Udupa, K., & Chen, R. E. (2019) · Handbook of clinical neurology · doi:10.1016/b978-0-444-64142-7.00047-3 · Cited by 26
Slan, A. R., Citrenbaum, C., Corlier, J., Ngo, D., Vince-Cruz, N., JACKSON, N. J., Valles, T. E., Wilke, S. A., Hoftman, G. D., Koek, R. J., et al. (2024) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2024.08.129 · Cited by 24
Limited evidence for reliability of low and high frequency rTMS over the motor cortex.
Prei, K., Kanig, C., Osnabrügge, M., Langguth, B., Mack, W., Abdelnaim, M., Schecklmann, M., & Schoisswohl, S. (2023) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2023.148534 · Cited by 21
“, 1994) and is capable to induce changes in cortical excitability, that can persist beyond stimulation offset (Hallett, 2000; Siebner and Rothwell, 2003).”
Ma'rufa, S. A., Hsieh, T.-H., Liou, J., Chen, H.-Y., & Peng, C.-W. (2021) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0252965 · Cited by 21
“Previous studies proved that TMS provides information of the motor status of patients with a deficit in motor function from varying causes and with different degrees of severity [12].”
BackgroundSpagnolo, P., Parker, J. A., Horovitz, S., & Hallett, M. (2021) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci11060791 · Cited by 21
“By applying a patterned, repetitive sequence of TMS (rTMS), temporally sustained changes in neuronal firing can be achieved, causing changes in brain functions and behavior [13].”
MethodSelf-citationLanza, G., Puglisi, V., Vinciguerra, L., Fisicaro, F., Vagli, C., Cantone, M., Pennisi, G., Pennisi, M., & Bella, R. (2020) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci10110806 · Cited by 21
Moussavi, Z., Rutherford, G., Lithgow, B. J., Millikin, C., Modirrousta, M., Mansouri, B., Wang, X., Omelan, C., Fellows, L. K., Fitzgerald, P. B., et al. (2020) · JMIR Research Protocols · doi:10.2196/25144 · Cited by 17
“Low-frequency pulses (<5 Hz) seem to decrease cortical excitability through the well-described process of long-term depression, while high-frequency pulses (10-20 Hz) seem to increase cortical excitability and synaptic plasticity through long-term potentiation mechanisms [20-22].”
BackgroundScott, E., Kidgell, D., Frazer, A., & Pearce, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2020.00306 · Cited by 21
“When applied over the M1, the response is recorded and measured as a motor Frontiers in Human Neuroscience | www.frontiersin.org 2 August 2020 | Volume 14 | Article 306 evoked potential (MEP) in the electromyogram (EMG) of the target muscle (Hallett, 2000; Pearce and Morris, 2011).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialImaging the socially-anxious brain: recent advances and future prospects
Bas‐Hoogendam, J. M., & Westenberg, P. M. (2020) · F1000Research · doi:10.12688/f1000research.21214.1 · Cited by 20
Spinal Cord Injury: Lessons about Neuroplasticity from Paired Associative Stimulation
Ling, Y.-T., Alam, M., & Zheng, Y.-P. (2019) · The Neuroscientist · doi:10.1177/1073858419895461 · Cited by 21
“For brain stimulation, noninvasive transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is commonly used in human studies (Hallett 2000), while for animal studies intracortical or epidural electrical stimulation are used to achieve higher accuracy of targeted stimulation (Mishra and others 2017).”
MethodLahouti, B., Lockyer, E., Wiseman, S., Power, K., & Button, D. (2019) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-019-05649-1 · Cited by 21
Rajak, B., Gupta, M., Bhatia, D., & Mukherjee, A. (2019) · Annals of Indian Academy of Neurology · doi:10.4103/aian.aian_102_18 · Cited by 21
Madrid, A., Valls-Solé, J., Oliviero, A., Cudeiro, J., & Arias, P. (2016) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.10.038 · Cited by 21
“While TMS is used to evaluate intracortical and corticospinal excitability (Hallett, 2000, 2007), the potentials induced by CMS (i.e. CMEP) are adequate to explore the excitability of the spinal cord circuits (Ugawa et al., 1991; Taylor and Gandevia, 2004; McNeil et al., 2013).”
Metadata
- Authors
- Hallett, M.
- Affiliations
- National Institutes of Health (US)
- Corresponding author
- Hallett, Mark
- ORCID
- Hallett, Mark
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2000-07
- Volume
- 406
- Issue
- 6792
- Pages
- 147-150
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2129291496
- Cited by
- 1,603
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 44 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 84 · 2021: 87 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 81 · 2017: 46 · 2016: 80 · 2015: 85 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 72 · 2012: 71
- FWCI
- 4.67
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Ultrasound and Hyperthermia Applications
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced MRI Techniques and Applications
- Keywords
- transcranial magnetic stimulation, non-invasive brain stimulation, motor cortex, occipital cortex, muscle twitch, scotoma, brain therapy
- MeSH terms
- Brain, Brain Mapping, Cerebral Cortex, Forecasting, Humans, Nervous System Diseases, Neuronal Plasticity, Evoked Potentials, Motor, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
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