Cited by 1,603Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation StudiesUltrasound and Hyperthermia ApplicationsAdvanced MRI Techniques and Applications

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation and the human brain

Hallett, Mark·2000·Nature

DOI 10.1038/35018000

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Abstract

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is rapidly developing as a powerful, non-invasive tool for studying the human brain. A pulsed magnetic field creates current flow in the brain and can temporarily excite or inhibit specific areas. TMS of motor cortex can produce a muscle twitch or block movement; TMS of occipital cortex can produce visual phosphenes or scotomas. TMS can also alter the functioning of the brain beyond the time of stimulation, offering potential for therapy.

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Background
Intracortical inhibition and facilitation upon awakening from different sleep stages: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study
Gennaro, L. D., Bertini, M., Ferrara, M., Curcio, G., Cristiani, R., Romei, V., Fratello, F., Pauri, F., & Rossini, P. M. (2004) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/j.0953-816x.2004.03411.x · Cited by 17
Plasticity after acute ischaemic stroke studied by transcranial magnetic stimulation
Boniface, S. (2001) · Journal of Neurology Neurosurgery & Psychiatry · doi:10.1136/jnnp.71.6.713 · Cited by 17
The use of noninvasive brain stimulation techniques in autism spectrum disorder
Oberman, L. M., Francis, S. M., & Lisanby, S. H. (2023) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3041 · Cited by 18
“…Theta Burst Stimulation (iTBS) and Continuous Theta Burst Stimulation (cTBS)). rTMS modulates excitability in targeted regions of stimulation (Hallett, 2000; Huang et al., 2005; Pascual-Leone et al., 1998) and exerts broader effects across networks connected to those regions (Beynel et al.,…”
Adaptively Clock-Boosted Auto-Ranging Neural-Interface for Emerging Neuromodulation Applications
Pazhouhandeh, M. R., Amirsoleimani, A., Weisspapir, I., Carlen, P., & Genov, R. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Circuits and Systems · doi:10.1109/tbcas.2022.3223988 · Cited by 17
“[TMS]) [17], [18] are also non-invasive but superficial stimulation methods unless very high intensity induced fields are used, which would lead to undesirable side effects.”
Background
Toward noninvasive brain stimulation 2.0 in Alzheimer’s disease
Menardi, A., Rossi, S., Koch, G., Hampel, H. J., Vergallo, A., Nitsche, M. A., Stern, Y., Borroni, B., Cappa, S. F., Cotelli, M., et al. (2021) · Ageing Research Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.arr.2021.101555 · Cited by 115
Discrete sampling in perception via neuronal oscillations—Evidence from rhythmic, non‐invasive brain stimulation
Kasten, F. H., & Herrmann, C. S. (2020) · European Journal of Neuroscience · doi:10.1111/ejn.15006 · Cited by 18
“TMS, in contrast, works via the principles of electromagnetic induction (Barker et al., 1985; Hallett, 2000; Wagner et al., 2009).”
A TMS study of preparatory suppression in binge drinkers
Grandjean, J., & Duque, J. (2020) · NeuroImage: Clinical · doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102383 · Cited by 17
“Moreover, the use of paired-pulse or directional TMS approaches (Derosiere and Duque, 2020; Hallett, 2000; Reis et al., 2008; Rossini et al., 2015; Derosiere et al., 2020; Di Lazzaro et al., 2001, 2017; Hannah et al., 2018) or the combination of TMS with functional/ diffusion magnetic resonance…”
Method
Theta burst stimulation ameliorates symptoms of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and attenuates reactive gliosis
Dragić, M., Zeljković, M., Stevanović, I. D., Ilic, T. V., Ilic, N. V., Nedeljković, N., & Ninković, M. (2020) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2020.06.013 · Cited by 18
The effect of experimental pain on short-interval intracortical inhibition with multi-locus transcranial magnetic stimulation
Salo, K., Vaalto, S., Koponen, L., Nieminen, J., & Ilmoniemi, R. (2019) · Experimental Brain Research · doi:10.1007/s00221-019-05502-5 · Cited by 17
“1992; Hallett 2000; Kujirai et al.”
The Silent Period Threshold as a Measure of Corticospinal Inhibition
Lo, Y. L., & Fook-Chong, S. (2005) · Journal of clinical neurophysiology · doi:10.1097/01.wnp.0000161146.37501.6d · Cited by 17
“(J Clin Neurophysiol 2005;22: 176–179) Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a well-recognized technique for the assessment of corticospinal function (Hallett, 2000).”
BackgroundMethod
Feasibility of electromyography-triggered neuromuscular stimulation as an adjunct to constraint-induced movement therapy.
Fritz, S., Chiu, Y.-P., Malcolm, M., Patterson, T., & Light, K. (2005) · Physical Therapy · doi:10.1093/ptj/85.5.428 · Cited by 17
The role of motion direction selective extrastriate regions in reading: a transcranial magnetic stimulation study
Liederman, J., Fisher, J. M., Schulz, M., Maxwell, C., Théoret, H., & Pascual‐Leone, Á. (2003) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1016/s0093-934x(02)00550-3 · Cited by 14
Changes in motor cortex activation after recovery from spinal cord inflammation
Cramer, S., Fray, E., Tievsky, A., Parker, R. A., Riskind, P., Stein, M. C., Wedeen, V., & Rosen, B. (2001) · Multiple Sclerosis · doi:10.1177/135245850100700604 · Cited by 17
rTMS as treatment strategy in psychiatric disorders--neurobiological concepts.
Keck, M. (2003) · Supplements to Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s1567-424x(09)70213-2 · Cited by 17
TMS-Induced Modulation of EEG Functional Connectivity Is Affected by the E-Field Orientation
Pieramico, G., Guidotti, R., Nieminen, J. O., D’Andrea, A., Basti, A., Souza, V. H., Nieminen, J. O., Lioumis, P., Ilmoniemi, R. J., Romani, G. L., et al. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13030418 · Cited by 17
“Indeed, the introduction of nTMS has allowed the functional mapping of cortical areas as well as the formation of transient functional lesions [13,14].”
Background
Magneto-mechanical effect of magnetic microhydrogel for improvement of magnetic neuro-stimulation
Xue, L., Ye, Q., Wu, L.-Y., Li, D., Bao, S.-Y., Lu, Q.-B., Liu, S., Sun, D.-K., Sheng, Z., Zhang, Z.-J., et al. (2023) · Nano Reseach · doi:10.1007/s12274-023-5464-x · Cited by 16
Hypnosis-induced modulation of corticospinal excitability during motor imagery
Cesari, P., Modenese, M., Benedetti, S., Andani, M. E., & Fiorio, M. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-74020-0 · Cited by 18
Human EEG and the mechanisms of memory: investigating long‐term potentiation (LTP) in sensory‐evoked potentials
Kirk, I. J., Spriggs, M. J., & Sumner, R. L. (2020) · Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand · doi:10.1080/03036758.2020.1780274 · Cited by 22
Modulation of intracortical inhibition and excitation in agonist and antagonist muscles following acute strength training
Mason, J., Howatson, G., Frazer, A. K., Pearce, A. J., Jaberzadeh, S., Avela, J., & Kidgell, D. J. (2019) · European Journal of Applied Physiology · doi:10.1007/s00421-019-04203-9 · Cited by 19
“2007; Hallett 2000) and is referred to as a motor-evoked potential (MEP).”
Background
Phantom Perception of Sound and the Abnormal Cortical Inhibition System: An Electroencephalography (EEG) Study
Kyong, J.-S., Noh, T.-S., Park, M. K., Oh, S. H., Lee, J. H., & Suh, M.-W. (2019) · Annals of Otology Rhinology & Laryngology · doi:10.1177/0003489419837990 · Cited by 14
Using Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy to Study the Effect of Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in Concussion: A Two-Patient Case Study
Stilling, J., Duszynski, C. C., Oni, I. K., Paxman, E., Dunn, J. F., & Debert, C. T. (2019) · Frontiers in Neurology · doi:10.3389/fneur.2019.00476 · Cited by 21
“Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) is a non-invasive neurostimulation treatment whereby a rapidly alternating magnetic field applied to the scalp induces an electrical stimulus in a targeted region of the brain (9).”
Background
Individual Activation Patterns After the Stimulation of Different Motor Areas: A Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation–Electroencephalography Study
Salo, K., Vaalto, S., Mutanen, T., Stenroos, M., & Ilmoniemi, R. (2018) · Brain Connectivity · doi:10.1089/brain.2018.0593 · Cited by 16
“The combination of TMS and EMG can also inform about the function of cortico-cortical connections between M1 and other cortical areas as well as inter-and intracortical inhibitory and facilitatory mechanisms in M1 (Arai and Yoshikazu, 2012; Bortoletto et al., 2015; Cona and Semenza, 2017; Ferbert et al., 1992; Kujirai…”
Influential
Temporal Profile and Limb-specificity of Phasic Pain-Evoked Changes in Motor Excitability.
Algoet, M., Duque, J., Iannetti, G., & Mouraux, A. (2018) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2018.06.039 · Cited by 16
“A more direct approach to characterize modulatory effects of nociception on the motor system at cortical level is to assess the effect of nociceptive stimuli on the motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of M1 (Hallett, 2000; Bestmann and Duque, 2015).”
Spinal cord injury affects I-wave facilitation in human motor cortex
Nardone, R., Höller, Y., Bathke, A. C., Orioli, A., Schwenker, K., Frey, V., Golaszewski, S. M., Brigo, F., & Trinka, E. (2015) · Brain Research Bulletin · doi:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2015.06.006 · Cited by 17
Transcranial magnetic stimulation for the prediction and enhancement of rehabilitation treatment effects
Harris-Love, M. (2012) · Journal of Neurologic Physical Therapy · doi:10.1097/npt.0b013e3182564d26 · Cited by 16
Design of a robotic Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation system
Yi, X., & Bicker, R. (2010) · IEEE Conference on Robotics, Automation and Mechatronics · doi:10.1109/ramech.2010.5513208 · Cited by 16
“The induced current flow triggers brain activities, and the function of many different parts of the brain can be studied by exciting, inhibiting and assessing aspects of excitability of the brain [1-5].”
Background
Transcranial stimulability of phosphenes by long lightning electromagnetic pulses
Peer, J., & Kendl, A. (2010) · Physics Letters A · doi:10.1016/j.physleta.2010.05.023 · Cited by 16
Electroconvulsive therapy reduces suicidality and all-cause mortality in refractory depression: A systematic review and meta-analysis of neurostimulation studies
Odermatt, J., Sarlon, J., Schaefer, N., Ulrich, S., Ridder, M., Schneider, E., Lang, U. E., Liwinski, T., & Brühl, A. B. (2025) · Neuroscience Applied · doi:10.1016/j.nsa.2025.105520 · Cited by 15
“…cortex to be significantly more effective at reducing depressive symptoms compared to sham rTMS (Kan et al., 2023). rTMS is a non-invasive procedure where an electrical current in the brain is induced by magnetic pulses which leads to a stimulation of neurons and neuronal networks (Hallett, 2000).”
Exploring Motor Network Connectivity in State-Dependent Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation: A Proof-of-Concept Study
Marzetti, L., Basti, A., Guidotti, R., Baldassarre, A., Metsomaa, J., Zrenner, C., D’Andrea, A., Makkinayeri, S., Pieramico, G., Ilmoniemi, R., et al. (2024) · bioRxiv · doi:10.3390/biomedicines12050955 · Cited by 15
Sensory recruitment in visual short-term memory: A systematic review and meta-analysis of sensory visual cortex interference using transcranial magnetic stimulation
Phylactou, P., Traikapi, A., Παπαδάτου-Παστού, Μ., & Konstantinou, N. (2022) · Psychonomic Bulletin & Review · doi:10.3758/s13423-022-02107-y · Cited by 24
“…with good spatial and temporal resolution (e.g., the “virtual lesion” or “neural noise” methods; Harris et al., 2008; see also de Graaf & Sack, 2011; Hallett, 2000; Pascual-Leone et al., 2000; Pitcher et al., 2020; Sack, 2006; Sandrini et al., 2011; Siebner et al., 2009) and has been shown to…”
BackgroundMethod
Real-Time Implementation of EEG Oscillatory Phase-Informed Visual Stimulation Using a Least Mean Square-Based AR Model
Shakeel, A., Onojima, T., Tanaka, T., & Kitajo, K. (2021) · Journal of Personalized Medicine · doi:10.3390/jpm11010038 · Cited by 15
“Although TMS has been around for several decades, it remains the most effective means to non-invasively excite a particular population of cortical neurons, with it being able to do this at a temporal resolution of microseconds and a spatial resolution of millimeters [2,5].”
Method
Modulation of Motor Cortex Plasticity by Repetitive Paired-Pulse TMS at Late I-Wave Intervals Is Influenced by Intracortical Excitability
Opie, G., Sasaki, R., Hand, B., & Semmler, J. (2020) · bioRxiv · doi:10.3390/brainsci11010121 · Cited by 15
“In particular, TMS remains the only technique able to both induce and measure neuroplastic changes within the brain [1, 2].”
Language function distribution in left-handers: A navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation study.
Tussis, L., Sollmann, N., Boeckh-Behrens, T., Meyer, B., & Krieg, S. (2016) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.01.010 · Cited by 15
“In short, a magnetic coil is manually placed on the scalp during transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and this coil is able to induce a temporary magnetic field that triggers the generation of an electrical field (Hallett, 2000; Ruohonen and Ilmoniemi, 1999; Ruohonen and Karhu, 2010).”
Background
Surgical management of low-grade gliomas.
Gerard, C. S., Straus, D., & Byrne, R. (2014) · Seminars in Oncology · doi:10.1053/j.seminoncol.2014.06.008 · Cited by 15
“Various authors have used newer non-invasive technologies for anatomic mapping such magnetoencephalography (MEG) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS).(40,41) Advanced preoperative functional imaging may serve two important purposes: (1) neuroplasticity may induce migration of functional activity to other neighb…”
Contribution of ipsilateral primary motor cortex activity to the execution of voluntary movements in humans: A review of recent studies
Uehara, K., & Funase, K. (2014) · doi:10.7600/jpfsm.3.297 · Cited by 15
Abnormal conditioning effect of transcranial magnetic stimulation on soleus H-reflex during voluntary movement in Parkinson's disease.
Morita, H., Shindo, M., Morita, S., Hashimoto, T., Tada, T., & Ikeda, S. (2002) · Clinical Neurophysiology · doi:10.1016/s1388-2457(02)00188-8 · Cited by 15
“…et al., 1995; Ridding et al., 1995; Berardelli et al., 1996; Ziemann et al., 1996; Strafella et al., 1997; Valzania et al., 1997; Young et al., 1997; Hallett, 2000; Chen et al., 2001a,b), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (Sabatini et al., 2000) and positron emission tomography (PET)…”
Background
The golden age of online readout: EEG-informed TMS from manual probing to closed-loop neuromodulation
Varone, G., Biabani, M., Tremblay, S., Brown, J. C., Kallioniemi, E., & Rogasch, N. C. (2025) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2025.121543 · Cited by 15
Changes in the cortical GABAergic inhibitory system with ageing and ageing‐related neurodegenerative diseases
Taube, W., & Lauber, B. (2024) · Journal of Physiology · doi:10.1113/jp285656 · Cited by 14
“…motor cortex activates cortical neurons and inter-neurons and the effects can be quantified by measuring the MEP from the EMG of the target muscle (Hallett, 2000; Rossini et al., 2010; Rothwell, 1997), reflecting the net effect of excitatory and inhibitory inputs to the motor cortex pyramidal…”
A subcortical magnocellular pathway is responsible for the fast processing of topological properties of objects: A transcranial magnetic stimulation study
Wang, W., Zhou, T., Chen, L., & Huang, Y. (2022) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.26162 · Cited by 14
“TMS is a noninvasive means of temporarily disrupting neuronal processing (Barker et al., 1985; Hallett, 2000; Kammer, 2007).”
Method
Prehabilitation and rehabilitation using data-driven, parcel-guided transcranial magnetic stimulation treatment for brain tumor surgery
Dadario, N. B., Young, I. M., Zhang, X., Teo, C., Doyen, S., & Sughrue, M. E. (2022) · Brain Network and Modulation · doi:10.4103/2773-2398.340144 · Cited by 18
Brain functional reorganization in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy: Assessment with TMS and therapeutic perspectives
Nardone, R., Sebastianelli, L., Ferrazzoli, D., Brigo, F., Lochner, P., Saltuari, L. L., Trinka, E., & Versace, V. (2021) · Neurophysiologie Clinique · doi:10.1016/j.neucli.2021.09.002 · Cited by 15
Designing and pilot testing a novel high-definition transcranial burst electrostimulation device for neurorehabilitation
Wang, S.-M., Huang, Y., Chen, J. J., Wu, C.-W., Chen, C., Lin, C., Nguyen, V.-T., & Peng, C. (2021) · Journal of Neural Engineering · doi:10.1088/1741-2552/ac23be · Cited by 11
Bihemispheric Navigated Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Mapping for Action Naming Compared to Object Naming in Sentence Context
Ohlerth, A.-K., Bastiaanse, R., Negwer, C., Sollmann, N., Schramm, S., Schröder, A., & Krieg, S. (2021) · Brain Science · doi:10.3390/brainsci11091190 · Cited by 14
Hand perceptions induced by single pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation over the primary motor cortex.
Franza, M., Sorrentino, G., Vissani, M., Serino, A., Blanke, O., & Bassolino, M. (2019) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2018.12.972 · Cited by 14
Investigating the effect of anticipating a startling acoustic stimulus on preparatory inhibition.
Grandjean, J., Quoilin, C., & Duque, J. (2019) · Neurophysiologie clinique · doi:10.1016/j.neucli.2018.11.002 · Cited by 14
Improved SNR for combined TMS-fMRI: A support device for commercially available body array coil.
Wang, W.-T., Xu, B., & Butman, J. (2017) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2017.06.020 · Cited by 14
“…mechanisms of the uman brain function (Boroojerdi et al., 2001; Cattaneo et al., 010; Desmond et al., 2005; Di Lazzaro et al., 2004; Feredoes et al., 007; Hallett, 2000; Herwig et al., 2003; Pascual-Leone et al., 2000; obertson et al., 2003; Sack, 2006; Terao et al., 1997; Walsh and owey, 2000).”
Background
Transcranial magnetic stimulation changes response selectivity of neurons in the visual cortex
Kim, T., Allen, E., Pasley, B. N., & Freeman, R. (2015) · Brain Stimulation · doi:10.1016/j.brs.2015.01.407 · Cited by 14
Therapeutic time window of noninvasive brain stimulation for pain treatment: inhibition of maladaptive plasticity with early intervention
Andrade, D. C., Borges, I. C., Bravo, G. L., Bolognini, N., & Fregni, F. (2013) · Expert Review of Medical Devices · doi:10.1586/erd.12.90 · Cited by 17
Frequency dependent effects of rTMS on motor and cognitive functions in Huntington’s disease
Groiss, S., Netz, J., Lange, H., & Buetefisch, C. (2012) · Basal Ganglia · doi:10.1016/j.baga.2011.12.001 · Cited by 14
Transcranial magnetic stimulation: a revolution in clinical neurophysiology.
Hallett, M. (2002) · Journal of clinical neurophysiology · doi:10.1097/00004691-200208000-00001 · Cited by 14
“Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is an exciting new tool for clinical neurophysiology (Hallett, 2000).”
MethodSelf-citation
StimTrack: An open-source software for manual transcranial magnetic stimulation coil positioning
Ambrosini, E., Ferrante, S., van de Ruit, M., Biguzzi, S., Colombo, V. M., Monticone, M., Ferriero, G., Pedrocchi, A., Ferrigno, G., & Grey, M. J. (2017) · Journal of Neuroscience Methods · doi:10.1016/j.jneumeth.2017.09.012 · Cited by 15
“TMS is widely used as a tool to assess corticospinal excitability, a commonly used marker for corticospinal plasticity (Hallett, 2000).”
Method
Magnetic Stimulation of Neural Tissue: Techniques and System Design
Basham, E., Yang, Z., Tchemodanov, N., & Liu, W.-T. (2009) · Biological and medical physics series · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-77261-5_10 · Cited by 14
Apparent Lack of Benefit of Combining Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation with Internet-Delivered Cognitive Behavior Therapy for the Treatment of Resistant Depression: Patient-Centered Randomized Controlled Pilot Trial
Adu, M. K., Shalaby, R., Eboreime, E., Sapara, A. O., Lawal, M. A., Chew, C., Daubert, S., Urichuk, L., Surood, S., Li, D., et al. (2023) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci13020293 · Cited by 15
“rTMS is a non-invasive focal brain stimulation that is considered to be an essential technique in neuropsychiatry treatment due to its ability to produce direct effects on a range of measures of brain function [22,23].”
Background

Authors: Hallett, M.
Affiliations: National Institutes of Health (US)
Corresponding author: Hallett, Mark
ORCID: Hallett, Mark
Venue: Nature
Publisher: Springer Science and Business Media LLC
Published: 2000-07
Volume: 406
Issue: 6792
Pages: 147-150
ISSN: 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
1476-4687
DOI: 10.1038/35018000
OpenAlex: W2129291496
Cited by: 1,603
References: 42
Citations by year: 2026: 44 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 70 · 2022: 84 · 2021: 87 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 73 · 2018: 81 · 2017: 46 · 2016: 80 · 2015: 85 · 2014: 75 · 2013: 72 · 2012: 71
FWCI: 4.67
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
Locations: Nature (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Neurology › Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Studies
Physical Sciences › Engineering › Biomedical Engineering › Ultrasound and Hyperthermia Applications
Health Sciences › Medicine › Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Imaging › Advanced MRI Techniques and Applications
Keywords: transcranial magnetic stimulation, non-invasive brain stimulation, motor cortex, occipital cortex, muscle twitch, scotoma, brain therapy
MeSH terms: Brain, Brain Mapping, Cerebral Cortex, Forecasting, Humans, Nervous System Diseases, Neuronal Plasticity, Evoked Potentials, Motor, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

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Transcranial magnetic stimulation and the human brain

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