Regulation of glucose metabolism from a liver-centric perspective
Open accessAbstract
Glucose homeostasis is tightly regulated to meet the energy requirements of the vital organs and maintain an individual’s health. The liver has a major role in the control of glucose homeostasis by controlling various pathways of glucose metabolism, including glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. Both the acute and chronic regulation of the enzymes involved in the pathways are required for the proper functioning of these complex interwoven systems. Allosteric control by various metabolic intermediates, as well as post-translational modifications of these metabolic enzymes constitute the acute control of these pathways, and the controlled expression of the genes encoding these enzymes is critical in mediating the longer-term regulation of these metabolic pathways. Notably, several key transcription factors are shown to be involved in the control of glucose metabolism including glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver. In this review, we would like to illustrate the current understanding of glucose metabolism, with an emphasis on the transcription factors and their regulators that are involved in the chronic control of glucose homeostasis. Hundreds of liver enzymes are involved in the body's processing of glucose. Together these enzymes help the body to maintain blood glucose levels and convert excessive carbohydrates into fatty acids. Seung-Hoi Koo and colleagues at Korea University. The researchers explain how these different liver enzymes are tightly regulated by several key transcription factors, including sterol regulatory element binding protein 1c (SREBP-1c), carbohydrate response element binding protein (ChREBP), cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and forkhead box protein O1 (FoxO1). Specifically, SREBP-1c and ChREBP are responsible for the chronic activation of glycolysis and fatty acid biosynthesis, while CREB and FoxO1 are responsible for the chronic activation of gluconeogenesis—the production of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources.
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The increased presence of progesterone in the mid-luteal phase promotes shuttling of glucose into the liver and upregulates GLUT-4 and GLUT-1 translocation to enhance glycogen storage in endometrial tissue for embryonic support.
“the increased presence of progesterone in the mid-luteal phase promotes the shuttling of glucose into the liver, as well as upregulating GLUT-4 and GLUT-1 translocation to enhance glycogen storage in the endometrial tissue for embryonic support [84,157].”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [84]
The Concluding remarks state that the liver takes up glucose under feeding conditions and stores excess glucose as glycogen. They attribute hepatic glycogen storage to insulin-related mechanisms, not progesterone. The paper does not support the claim about the mid-luteal phase, GLUT-1 or GLUT-4 translocation, or glycogen storage in endometrial tissue for embryonic support. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredProgesterone affects glucose metabolism through upregulation of GLUT1 expression to increase endometrial glycolytic metabolism, attenuating skeletal and hepatic glycolytic pathways.
“affects glucose metabolism through the upregulation of GLUT1 expression to increase endometrial glycolytic metabolism, attenuating skeletal and hepatic glycolytic pathways [82–85]”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [84]
The 'Control of hepatic gluconeogenesis' and 'Concluding remarks' sections discuss liver glucose metabolism, but do not address progesterone. Searches for progesterone, GLUT1, endometrial glycolysis, and attenuation of skeletal or hepatic glycolysis found no passage supporting the attributed mechanism. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredRobust evidence demonstrates that estrogen and progesterone have important roles in regulating substrate metabolism.
“Robust evidence exists that demonstrates the important roles estrogen and progesterone have in regulating substrate metabolism [20,24,66,70,80,82,84,154–159].”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [84]
The ‘Control of hepatic gluconeogenesis’ section discusses estrogen-related receptor gamma (ERRγ), not the hormone estrogen. The passages do not address progesterone or establish that estrogen and progesterone regulate substrate metabolism (searched: progesterone; estrogen and progesterone substrate metabolism). (LLM, conf=0.77)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredProgesterone decreases the sensitivity of IGF-1 mediated uptake of glucose into skeletal muscle but upregulates GLUT-4 and GLUT-1 translocation to enhance glycogen storage in endometrial tissue for embryonic support.
“Progesterone decreases the sensitivity of IGF-1 mediated uptake of glucose into skeletal muscle, but upregulates GLUT-4 and GLUT-1 translocation to enhance glycogen storage in the endometrial tissue for embryonic support [84].”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [84]
The section on regulation of glycogen metabolism in the liver discusses insulin-driven hepatic glycogen synthesis, not progesterone or endometrial tissue; no page number is provided in our copy. Searches for progesterone and IGF-1-mediated skeletal-muscle glucose uptake, and for endometrial GLUT-1/GLUT-4 translocation, found no passage addressing the claim. (LLM, conf=0.76)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredEstrogen, specifically 17β-estradiol, promotes lipolysis and increases fatty acid availability while decreasing the rate of gluconeogenesis with muscle and liver glycogen sparing.
“Estrogen, specifically 17β-estradiol, promotes lipolysis and increases fatty acid availability while decreasing the rate of gluconeogenesis with muscle and liver glycogen sparing.”
From International society of sports nutrition position stand: nutritional concerns of the female athlete (2023) · cites this paper as [84]
The Control of hepatic gluconeogenesis section discusses fasting-related lipolysis and estrogen-related receptor gamma, but does not describe effects of 17β-estradiol. The Overview of glucose metabolism in the liver discusses glycogen depletion during fasting, not muscle or liver glycogen sparing by estrogen. Searches for estradiol, lipolysis, gluconeogenesis, and glycogen sparing found no passage addressing the attributed claim; page numbers were unavailable. (LLM, conf=0.75)
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- Authors
- Han, H.-S., Kang, G., Kim, J. S., Choi, B. H., & Koo, S.-H.
- Affiliations
- Korea University (KR)
- Corresponding author
- Koo, Seung-Hoi
- Venue
- Experimental & Molecular Medicine
- Published
- 2016-03-11
- Volume
- 48
- Issue
- 3
- Pages
- e218-e218
- ISSN
- 1226-3613 (ISSN-L)
- 2092-6413
- PMC
- PMC4892876
- OpenAlex
- W2296585153
- Cited by
- 835
- References
- 76
- Citations by year
- 2026: 96 · 2025: 137 · 2024: 126 · 2023: 118 · 2022: 121 · 2021: 110 · 2020: 64 · 2019: 31 · 2018: 19 · 2017: 12 · 2016: 1
- FWCI
- 1.90
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- Locations
- Experimental & Molecular Medicine (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by-nc-nd)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Research Foundation (2015R1A5A1009024)
- Korea University
- National Research Foundation of Korea (2015R1A2A1A01006687, NRF-2015R1A5A1009024, NRF‐2012M3A9B6055345, 2015R1A5A1009024, NRF-2015R1A2A1A01006687)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Molecular Biology › Metabolism, Diabetes, and Cancer
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Rheumatology › Glycogen Storage Diseases and Myoclonus
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism › Diet, Metabolism, and Disease
- Keywords
- glucose homeostasis, hepatic glucose metabolism, glycogen synthesis, glycogenolysis, glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, transcription factors, SREBP-1c, ChREBP, CREB, FOXO1, post-translational regulation, allosteric regulation, fatty acid synthesis, gene expression regulation
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Gluconeogenesis, Glucose, Glycolysis, Homeostasis, Humans, Liver
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