Genome-wide association studies establish that human intelligence is highly heritable and polygenic
Open accessAbstract
General intelligence is an important human quantitative trait that accounts for much of the variation in diverse cognitive abilities. Individual differences in intelligence are strongly associated with many important life outcomes, including educational and occupational attainments, income, health and lifespan. Data from twin and family studies are consistent with a high heritability of intelligence, but this inference has been controversial. We conducted a genome-wide analysis of 3511 unrelated adults with data on 549,692 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and detailed phenotypes on cognitive traits. We estimate that 40% of the variation in crystallized-type intelligence and 51% of the variation in fluid-type intelligence between individuals is accounted for by linkage disequilibrium between genotyped common SNP markers and unknown causal variants. These estimates provide lower bounds for the narrow-sense heritability of the traits. We partitioned genetic variation on individual chromosomes and found that, on average, longer chromosomes explain more variation. Finally, using just SNP data we predicted ∼1% of the variance of crystallized and fluid cognitive phenotypes in an independent sample (P=0.009 and 0.028, respectively). Our results unequivocally confirm that a substantial proportion of individual differences in human intelligence is due to genetic variation, and are consistent with many genes of small effects underlying the additive genetic influences on intelligence.
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Heritability estimates from genome-wide data on unrelated individuals generally support large and increasing heritability of intelligence.
“findings generally supported by heritability estimates from genome-wide data on unrelated individuals (Davies et al., 2011; Plomin et al., 2013).”
From Large Cross-National Differences in Gene × Socioeconomic Status Interaction on Intelligence (2016) · cites this paper as Davies et al., 2011
The Abstract and Discussion report genome-wide estimates from unrelated adults that support substantial heritability of intelligence. The paper does not show that heritability increases; its estimates concern fluid and crystallized intelligence in middle to older adulthood, not a change over time. (LLM, conf=0.84)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredPartitioning genetic variance by chromosome for diverse traits shows the proportion of variance explained is consistently proportional to chromosome length.
“partitioning of the genetic variance on a chromosome-by-chromosome basis, for a diverse set of traits, shows that the proportion of variance explained is consistently proportional to chromosome length75,76.”
From Rare and common variants: twenty arguments (2012) · cites this paper as [76]
It is unclear whether the same methods are as efficient for schizophrenia, arthritis, or intelligence.
“and it is not clear that they are as efficient for schizophrenia, arthritis or intelligence75,76.”
From Rare and common variants: twenty arguments (2012) · cites this paper as [76]
For BMI, those methods recover only about half or slightly more of the expected genotypic variance.
“Yet the same methods applied to BMI do not capture much more than half of the expected genotypic variance, and it is not clear that they are as efficient for schizophrenia, arthritis or intelligence75,76.”
From Rare and common variants: twenty arguments (2012) · cites this paper as [76]
Common variant SNP effects have been estimated to explain large proportions of the phenotypic heritability for a wide range of diseases: BIP and SCZ; T1DM, T2DM, Crohn's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, celiac disease, and coronary artery disease; and continuous traits (height, intelligence, and body mass).
“Common variant SNP effects have been estimated to explain large proportions of the phenotypic heritability for a wide range of diseases: BIP and SCZ; 69,130 T1DM, T2DM, Crohn’s disease, rheumatoid arthritis, celiac disease, and coronary artery disease; 70,77 and continuous traits (height, intelligence, and body mass). 70,131,132”
From Genetic architectures of psychiatric disorders: the emerging picture and its implications (2012) · cites this paper as [132]
These results are consistent with suggestions that the "missing heritability" is merely hidden.
“These results are consistent with suggestions that the “missing heritability” 133 is merely hidden. 132”
From Genetic architectures of psychiatric disorders: the emerging picture and its implications (2012) · cites this paper as [132]
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BackgroundMethodInfluentialStrong genetic overlap between executive functions and intelligence.
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- Authors
- Davies, G., Tenesa, A., Payton, A., Yang, J., Harris, S. E., Liewald, D., Ke, X., Le Hellard, S., Christoforou, A., Luciano, M., McGhee, K., Lopez, L., Gow, A. J., Corley, J., Redmond, P., Fox, H. C., Haggarty, P., Whalley, L. J., McNeill, G., Goddard, M. E., Espeseth, T., Lundervold, A. J., Reinvang, I., Pickles, A., Steen, V. M., Ollier, W., Porteous, D. J., Horan, M., Starr, J. M., Pendleton, N., Visscher, P. M., & Deary, I. J.
- Affiliations
- University of Edinburgh (GB)
- Roslin Institute (GB)
- University of Manchester (GB)
- QIMR Berghofer Medical Research Institute (AU)
- Western General Hospital (GB)
- University of Aberdeen (GB)
- University of Bergen (NO)
- The University of Melbourne (AU)
- University of Oslo (NO)
- Haukeland University Hospital (NO)
- Salford Royal NHS Foundation Trust (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Visscher, P M
- Deary, I J
- ORCID
- Venue
- Molecular Psychiatry
- Published
- 2011-08-09
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 10
- Pages
- 996-1005
- ISSN
- 1359-4184 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-5578
- PMC
- PMC3182557
- OpenAlex
- W2165719935
- Cited by
- 608
- References
- 42
- Citations by year
- 2026: 4 · 2025: 14 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 16 · 2022: 19 · 2021: 31 · 2020: 30 · 2019: 29 · 2018: 44 · 2017: 41 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 80 · 2014: 81 · 2013: 82 · 2012: 63
- FWCI
- 9.86
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Molecular Psychiatry (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- UCL Discovery (University College London) (submittedVersion)
- Minerva Access (University of Melbourne) (submittedVersion)
- Research Portal (King's College London) (submittedVersion)
- Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) (submittedVersion)
- Funders
- Wellcome Trust (84698, 064359)
- Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BB/F022441/1, BB/F019394/1, SAG09977)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Associations and Epidemiology
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetic Mapping and Diversity in Plants and Animals
- Keywords
- general intelligence, heritability, polygenic architecture, crystallized intelligence, fluid intelligence, cognitive characteristics, single nucleotide polymorphisms, linkage disequilibrium, narrow-sense heritability, chromosome length, genetic prediction, individual differences in cognition
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Adult, Aged, Aged, 80 and over, Child, Female, Humans, Intelligence, Longitudinal Studies, Male, Middle Aged, Reference Values, Cohort Studies, Genome, Human, Quantitative Trait, Heritable, Multifactorial Inheritance, Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide, Genome-Wide Association Study, Young Adult
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