Autism As a Disorder of High Intelligence
Open accessAbstract
A suite of recent studies has reported positive genetic correlations between autism risk and measures of mental ability. These findings indicate that alleles for autism overlap broadly with alleles for high intelligence, which appears paradoxical given that autism is characterized, overall, by below-average IQ. This paradox can be resolved under the hypothesis that autism etiology commonly involves enhanced, but imbalanced, components of intelligence. This hypothesis is supported by convergent evidence showing that autism and high IQ share a diverse set of convergent correlates, including large brain size, fast brain growth, increased sensory and visual-spatial abilities, enhanced synaptic functions, increased attentional focus, high socioeconomic status, more deliberative decision-making, profession and occupational interests in engineering and physical sciences, and high levels of positive assortative mating. These findings help to provide an evolutionary basis to understanding autism risk as underlain in part by dysregulation of intelligence, a core human-specific adaptation. In turn, integration of studies on intelligence with studies of autism should provide novel insights into the neurological and genetic causes of high mental abilities, with important implications for cognitive enhancement, artificial intelligence, the relationship of autism with schizophrenia, and the treatment of both autism and intellectual disability.
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Some gifted profiles might share socio-emotional problems with high-functioning autism, mainly regarding social abilities, adaptation disorders, withdrawal in imaginary and/or intellectual abstraction, attention deficit, clumsiness, excessive attention to restricted interests, and hypersensitivity.
“Some gifted profiles might share socio-emotional problems with highfunctioning autism, mainly regarding social abilities, adaptation disorders, withdrawal in imaginary and/or intellectual abstraction, attention deficit, clumsiness, excessive attention to restricted interests, and hypersensitivity [7, 15, 16].”
From Behavioral and Socio-Emotional Disorders in Intellectual Giftedness: A Systematic Review (2024) · cites this paper as [16]
In “Sensory functions, attention, and special abilities” (page not provided), the paper reports high attention to detail among child prodigies and in autism, and discusses sensory sensitivity and reduced social abilities in relation to autism or savant skills. It does not establish that gifted profiles share the full list of socio-emotional problems with high-functioning autism; adaptation disorders, imaginative withdrawal, attention deficit, and clumsiness are not supported by these passages. (LLM, conf=0.86)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredHigher cognitive capacities in humans were acquired at the cost of increased susceptibility to mental disease.
“Notably, it was proposed that the higher cognitive capacities in humans were acquired at the cost of increased susceptibility to mental disease17–19.”
From Distinct selective forces and Neanderthal introgression shaped genetic diversity at genes involved in neurodevelopmental disorders (2017) · cites this paper as [19]
The Introduction (page unavailable) proposes that the evolution of high intelligence in humans increased the scope for cognitive dysregulation, including intellectual disability. The Discussion (page unavailable) develops a related hypothesis for autism. These passages support the proposed link, but not the broader claim of increased susceptibility to mental disease generally. (LLM, conf=0.82)
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- Crespi B. Leach E. (2016). The evolutionary biology of human neurodevelopment: evo-neuro-devo comes of age, in Evolutionary Developmental Anthropology, eds Boughner J. Rolian C. (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley), 205– 229.
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Getting to the cores of autism
Iakoucheva, L. M., Muotri, A. R., & Sebat, J. (2019) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2019.07.037 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
“This result has led to fascinating speculation as to the potential causative relationship of high intelligence to ASD (Crespi, 2016), but a rigorous dissection of the relationship of ASD PRS with intelligence in the general population is needed.”
BackgroundAntaki, D., Guevara, J., Maihofer, A. X., Klein, M., Gujral, M., Grove, J., Carey, C. E., Hong, O., Arranz, M. J., Hervas, A., et al. (2022) · Nature Genetics · doi:10.1038/s41588-022-01064-5 · Cited by 206 · see citing works
Peñuelas‐Calvo, I., Sareen, A., Sevilla‐Llewellyn‐Jones, J., & Fernández‐Berrocal, P. (2018) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3814-4 · Cited by 121 · see citing works
Hou, Q.-L., Wang, Y., Li, Y., Chen, D., Yang, F., & Wang, S. (2018) · Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00182 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Saleh, M. W. A., & Mansour, M. (2024) · Accounting Research Journal · doi:10.1108/arj-04-2023-0106 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
Journey to diagnosis for women with autism
Zener, D. (2019) · Advances in Autism · doi:10.1108/aia-10-2018-0041 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
Polimanti, R. A., & Gelernter, J. E. (2017) · PLoS Genetics · doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1006618 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Park, B., Bethlehem, R. A. I., Paquola, C., Larivière, S., Rodríguez‐Cruces, R., de Wael, R. V., Bullmore, E. T., Dolan, R. J., Goodyer, I. M., Fonagy, P., et al. (2021) · eLife · doi:10.7554/elife.64694 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
Brynge, M., Sjöqvist, H., Gardner, R. M., Lee, B. K., Dalman, C., & Karlsson, H. (2022) · The Lancet Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/s2215-0366(22)00264-4 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Pham, A. V., & Charles, L. C. (2023) · Current Psychiatry Reports · doi:10.1007/s11920-023-01417-9 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Gray space and green space proximity associated with higher anxiety in youth with autism
Larson, L. R., Barger, B. D., Ogletree, S. S., Torquati, J., Rosenberg, S. A., Gaither, C. J., Bartz, J. M., Gardner, A. W., Moody, E. J., & Schutte, A. R. (2018) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.07.006 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
Rao, S., Baranova, A. V., Yao, Y., Wang, J., & Zhang, F. (2022) · Neuropsychobiology · doi:10.1159/000525411 · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Carlisi, C. O., Norman, L., Murphy, C. M., Christakou, A., Chantiluke, K., Giampietro, V., Simmons, A., Brammer, M., Murphy, D. G., MRC AIMS consortium, et al. (2017) · Psychological Medicine · doi:10.1017/s0033291717001088 · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Blain, S. D., Grazioplene, R. G., Ma, Y., & DeYoung, C. G. (2019) · Schizophrenia Bulletin · doi:10.1093/schbul/sbz103 · Cited by 45 · see citing works
Association of phthalate exposure with autistic traits in children
Kim, J. I., Lee, J. E., Lee, K., Lee, Y. A., Shin, C. H., Hong, Y., Kim, B.-N., & Lim, Y.-H. (2021) · Environment International · doi:10.1016/j.envint.2021.106775 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Genomic trade-offs: are autism and schizophrenia the steep price of the human brain?
Sikela, J. M., & Quick, V. B. S. (2018) · Human Genetics · doi:10.1007/s00439-017-1865-9 · Cited by 42 · see citing works
Behavioral and Socio-Emotional Disorders in Intellectual Giftedness: A Systematic Review
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Liu, G., Shi, L., Qiu, J., & Lu, W. (2022) · Molecular Autism · doi:10.1186/s13229-022-00489-3 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Alemany, S., Blok, E., Jansen, P. R., Muetzel, R. L., & White, T. J. H. (2021) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.2576 · Cited by 38 · see citing works
Crespi, B. J. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.621659 · Cited by 34 · see citing works
Self-citationColor Vision Losses in Autism Spectrum Disorders
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Hunt, A., & Jaeggi, A. V. (2022) · Evolutionary Human Sciences · doi:10.1017/ehs.2022.23 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
The evolution of a series of behavioral traits is associated with autism-risk genes in cavefish
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Three models for the regulation of polygenic scores in reproduction
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Chakraborti, B., Verma, D., Guhathakurta, S., Jaiswal, P., Singh, A. S., Sinha, S., Ghosh, S., Mukhopadhyay, K., Mohanakumar, K. P., & Rajamma, U. (2020) · Frontiers in Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnins.2019.01375 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Abu-Akel, A. M., Webb, M. E., de Montpellier, E., Bentivegni, S. V., Luechinger, L., Ishii, A., & Möhr, C. (2020) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2020.100656 · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Hunt, A., & Procyshyn, T. L. (2024) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.3078 · Cited by 27 · see citing works
A Unifying Theory for Autism: The Pathogenetic Triad as a Theoretical Framework
Sarovic, D. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.767075 · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Bidirectional genetic overlap between autism spectrum disorder and cognitive traits
Hope, S., Shadrin, A. A., Lin, A., Bahrami, S., Rødevand, L. N., Frei, O., Hübenette, S. J., Cheng, W., Hindley, G., Nag, H. E., et al. (2023) · Translational Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41398-023-02563-7 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Polygenic risk for psychiatric disorders correlates with executive function in typical development
Schork, A., Brown, T., Hagler, D., Thompson, W., Chen, C.-H., Dale, A., Jernigan, T., & Akshoomoff, N. (2018) · Genes, Brain and Behavior · doi:10.1111/gbb.12480 · Cited by 25 · see citing works
Griffiths, A. J., Brady, J. J., Riley, N., Alsip, J., Trine, V., & Gomez, L. (2021) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2020.545701 · Cited by 24 · see citing works
Crespi, B. J. (2019) · Evolution Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.1093/emph/eoz022 · Cited by 23 · see citing works
Self-citationBilleiter, K. B., & Froiland, J. M. (2022) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-021-01300-9 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
Mozzi, A., Forni, D., Cagliani, R., Pozzoli, U., Clerici, M., & Sironi, M. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-06440-4 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Bruton, O. J. (2021) · Intelligence · doi:10.1016/j.intell.2021.101540 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Comparative analysis reveals distinctive epigenetic features of the human cerebellum
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Evolutionary and genetic insights for clinical psychology
Crespi, B. J. (2020) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2020.101857 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Self-citationFacilitating independent commuting among individuals with autism – A design study in Singapore
Lim, P. Y., Kong, P., Cornet, H., & Frenkler, F. (2021) · Journal of Transport & Health · doi:10.1016/j.jth.2021.101022 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Autism Spectrum Disorders: State-of-the-Art (Review)
Bozhkova, E. D., Balandina, O. V., & Коновалов, А. А. (2020) · Современные технологии в медицине · doi:10.17691/stm2020.12.2.14 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Sex Differences in Mental Rotation and How They Add to the Understanding of Autism
Zapf, A. C., Glindemann, L. A., Vogeley, K. T., & Falter, C. M. (2015) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0124628 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Riccioni, A., Stefano, P. R. O., Criscio, L. D., Terribili, M., Siracusano, M., Moavero, R., Valeriani, M., & Mazzone, L. (2021) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci11121607 · Cited by 21 · see citing works
The DCIDE framework: systematic investigation of evolutionary hypotheses, exemplified with autism
Hunt, A., & Jaeggi, A. V. (2025) · Biological reviews/Biological reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society · doi:10.1111/brv.70010 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Santiago, M., & Louro, V. (2021) · Revista Música · doi:10.11606/rm.v21i2.181126 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Halder, S., Bruyère, S. M., & Gower, W. S. (2022) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2022.2058781 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Tree Canopy Coverage Predicts Lower Conduct Problem Severity in Children with ASD
Barger, B. D., Larson, L. R., Ogletree, S. S., Torquati, J., Rosenberg, S. A., Gaither, C. J., Bartz, J. M., Gardner, A. W., & Moody, E. J. (2020) · Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities · doi:10.1080/19315864.2020.1714824 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Williams, C. M., Peyre, H., Toro, R., Beggiato, A., & Ramus, F. (2020) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.25145 · Cited by 15 · see citing works
Caldwell‐Harris, C. L. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.657774 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Openshaw, R. L., Thomson, D. M., Bristow, G. C., Mitchell, E. J., Pratt, J. A., MORRIS, B. J., & Dawson, N. (2023) · Communications Biology · doi:10.1038/s42003-023-04891-2 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Gardner, R. M., Dalman, C., Rai, D., Lee, B. K., & Karlsson, H. (2019) · Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2019.04.004 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Dutton, E., Nijenhuis, J. T., Metzen, D., van der Linden, D., & Madison, G. (2019) · Journal of Religion and Health · doi:10.1007/s10943-019-00926-3 · Cited by 14 · see citing works
Autism: Implications for Inclusive Education with respect to Software Engineering
Stuurman, S., Passier, H., Geven, F., & Barendsen, E. (2019) · Computer Science Education Research Conference · doi:10.1145/3375258.3375261 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Sleep Health at the Genomic Level: Six Distinct Factors and Their Relationships With Psychopathology
Morrison, C. L., Winiger, E. A., Rieselbach, M. M., Vetter, C., Wright, K. P., LeBourgeois, M. K., & Friedman, N. P. (2022) · Biological Psychiatry Global Open Science · doi:10.1016/j.bpsgos.2022.07.002 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Loffi, R. G., Cruz, T. K. F., Paiva, G. M., Souto, D. O., Barreto, S. R., SANTANA, P. C. M., Nascimento, A. A. A. C., Costa, F. R. M., Cota, E. B., & Haase, V. G. (2024) · Children · doi:10.3390/children11020191 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Facial Expression Databases and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Scoping Review
Pandey, R., & Bhushan, B. (2025) · Autism Research · doi:10.1002/aur.70030 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
South, G., & Sunderland, N. (2020) · Disability & Society · doi:10.1080/09687599.2020.1816903 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Aguilar, C. P. C., & Rauli, P. M. F. (2020) · Revista Educação Especial · doi:10.5902/1984686x44082 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The sexual selection of creativity: A nomological approach
Novaes, F. C., & Natividade, J. C. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.874261 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Autistic nurses: do they exist?
Hedlund, Å. (2023) · British Journal of Nursing · doi:10.12968/bjon.2023.32.4.210 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
Rządeczka, M., Wodziński, M. C., & Moskalewicz, M. (2023) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1291854 · Cited by 12 · see citing works
The “Primitive Brain Dysfunction” Theory of Autism: The Superior Colliculus Role
Jure, R. (2022) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2022.797391 · Cited by 13 · see citing works
Park, B.-Y., Bethlehem, R. A. I., Paquola, C., Larivière, S., Cruces, R. R., de Wael, R. V., Bullmore, E. T., & Bernhardt, B. C. (2020) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2020.06.22.165621 · Cited by 11 · see citing works
Biological Constraint as a Cause of AgingPreprint
Gems, D., & Kern, C. C. (2022) · Preprints.org · doi:10.20944/preprints202205.0212.v1 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Halder, S., & Bruyère, S. M. (2021) · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1080/20473869.2021.1917111 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Bright, but allergic and neurotic? A critical investigation of the “overexcitable genius” hypothesis
Fries, J., Baudson, T. G., Kovacs, K., & Pietschnig, J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1051910 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Jain, A., Tiwari, S., & Padickaparambil, S. (2019) · Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine · doi:10.4103/ijpsym.ijpsym_163_19 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Maksimović, S., Jeličić, L., Marisavljević, M., Fatić, S., Gavrilović, A., & Subotić, M. (2022) · Diagnostics · doi:10.3390/diagnostics12051110 · Cited by 9 · see citing works
Rezaeinejad, M., Riahi, S. M., Moghadam, K. B., Tadi, M. J., Geraili, Z., Parsa, H., Marhoommirzabak, E., Shiadeh, M. N., & Khatir, A. A. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0292226 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Emotion Perception in Members of Norwegian Mensa
Egeland, J. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00027 · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Enrichment of a subset of Neanderthal polymorphisms in autistic probands and siblings
Pauly, R., Johnson, L., Feltus, F. A., & Casanova, E. L. (2024) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-024-02593-7 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Brain working memory network indices as landmarks of intelligence
Khodaei, M., Laurienti, P. J., Dagenbach, D., & Simpson, S. L. (2023) · Neuroimage Reports · doi:10.1016/j.ynirp.2023.100165 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Crespi, B. J. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108580298.045 · Cited by 7 · see citing works
Self-citationCrespi, B. J. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.937163 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Self-citationGignac, G. E., Palermo, R., Bothe, E., Walker, D. L., & Wilmer, J. B. (2023) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218231203679 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Schmilovich, Z., Bourque, V.-R., Douard, E. A., Huguet, G., Poulain, C., Ross, J. P., Alipour, P., Castonguay, C.-E., Younis, N., Jean‐Louis, M., et al. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2024.1369767 · Cited by 6 · see citing works
Prakash, A., & Banerjee, M. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-89798-w · Cited by 8 · see citing works
Avaliação da inteligência em crianças com transtorno do espectro autista (TEA)
Bezam, P. D. B. (2020) · doi:10.11606/d.59.2020.tde-28042020-100710 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Keeping the balance: Trade-offs between human brain evolution, autism, and schizophrenia
Duński, E., & Pękowska, A. (2022) · Frontiers in Genetics · doi:10.3389/fgene.2022.1009390 · Cited by 5 · see citing works
Mottron, L., Lavigne-Champagne, A., Bernhardt, B. C., Dumas, G., Jacquemont, S., & Gagnon, D. (2025) · Molecular Psychiatry · doi:10.1038/s41380-025-03275-8 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Cognitive Development and Language Acquisition in Autistic Children
Mostek, J. (2022) · Science Insights · doi:10.15354/si.22.re091 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
The neurobiology of autism spectrum disorder as it relates to twice exceptionality
Sharkey, R. J., & Nickl‐Jockschat, T. (2023) · Neurobiology of Learning and Memory · doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2023.107740 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Evolutionary Perspectives on Neurodevelopmental Disorders
Swanepoel, A., Reiss, M. J., Launer, J., Music, G., & Wren, B. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009030564.017 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Evolutionary Analyses of RNA Editing and Amino Acid Recoding in CephalopodsPreprint
Wang, M., & Mohlhenrich, E. R. (2019) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/714394 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
Differences in ongoing thought between autistic and non-autistic adults
Strawson, W., Mckeown, B., Quadt, L., Wang, H.-T., Larsson, D. E. O., Mulcahy, J., Silva, M., Kampoureli, C. N., Turnbull, A. G., Garfinkel, S. N., et al. (2024) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-024-78286-6 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
The Labor Market Skills Gap and Autism
Hurley-Hanson, A. E., Giannantonio, C. M., & Griffiths, A. J. (2019) · Palgrave explorations in workplace stigma · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-29049-8_7 · Cited by 3 · see citing works
When autistic writing is superior to neurotypical writing: the case of blogs
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Allman, M. E., Kerr, S., Roldan, C. I., Harris, G. M., & Harris, G. E. (2024) · Advances in Autism · doi:10.1108/aia-02-2024-0013 · Cited by 4 · see citing works
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Genetic and Environmental Predisposing Factors of Autism Spectrum Disorders
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Creating Career Opportunities for Women with Autism in STEM
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Evidências de validade convergente Raven e R-2 em crianças com TEA
Bezam, P. D. B., Antonelli-Ponti, M., & Silva, J. A. D. (2020) · Revista Psicologia em Pesquisa · doi:10.34019/1982-1247.2020.v14.30531 · Cited by 2 · see citing works
- Authors
- Crespi, B. J.
- Affiliations
- Simon Fraser University (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Crespi, Bernard J.
- ORCID
- Crespi, Bernard J.
- Venue
- Frontiers in Neuroscience
- Publisher
- Frontiers Media SA
- Published
- 2016-06-30
- Volume
- 10
- Pages
- 300-300
- ISSN
- 1662-453X (ISSN-L)
- PMC
- PMC4927579
- OpenAlex
- W2470385410
- Cited by
- 156
- References
- 235
- Citations by year
- 2026: 8 · 2025: 12 · 2024: 18 · 2023: 24 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 22 · 2020: 19 · 2019: 13 · 2018: 10 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 1 · 2015: 1
- FWCI
- 5.94
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- gold
- doi.org
- Licence
- cc-by
- Locations
- Frontiers in Neuroscience (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (311201)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Genetics › Genetics and Neurodevelopmental Disorders
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Cognitive Abilities and Testing
- Keywords
- autism spectrum disorder, high IQ, genetic correlation, IQ, brain size, brain growth, visuospatial ability, sensory abilities, synaptic function, attention, socioeconomic status, decision-making, career interest, assortative mating, autism etiology, schizophrenia, intellectual disability, cognitive enhancement
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