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Carbon losses from all soils across England and Wales 1978–2003
Abstract
More than twice as much carbon is held in soils as in vegetation or the atmosphere, and changes in soil carbon content can have a large effect on the global carbon budget. The possibility that climate change is being reinforced by increased carbon dioxide emissions from soils owing to rising temperature is the subject of a continuing debate. But evidence for the suggested feedback mechanism has to date come solely from small-scale laboratory and field experiments and modelling studies. Here we use data from the National Soil Inventory of England and Wales obtained between 1978 and 2003 to show that carbon was lost from soils across England and Wales over the survey period at a mean rate of 0.6% yr(-1) (relative to the existing soil carbon content). We find that the relative rate of carbon loss increased with soil carbon content and was more than 2% yr(-1) in soils with carbon contents greater than 100 g kg(-1). The relationship between rate of carbon loss and carbon content is irrespective of land use, suggesting a link to climate change. Our findings indicate that losses of soil carbon in England and Wales--and by inference in other temperate regions-are likely to have been offsetting absorption of carbon by terrestrial sinks.
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“UK wide surveys recording trends in soil carbon over time (at the 0–15 cm depth) have also reported significant reductions (~6%) in soil carbon under managed fertile grasslands between 1998 and 2007 (Bellamy, Loveland, Bradley, Lark, & Kirk, 2005; Emmett et al., 2010).”
From Measured and modelled effect of land‐use change from temperate grassland to Miscanthus on soil carbon stocks after 12 years (2019) · cites this paper as Bellamy et al., 2005
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“In addition, there are indications (Bellamy et al., 2005;Monson et al., 2006;Luo, 2007;Arnone et al., 2008;Bond-Lamberty and Thomson, 2010;Smith and Fang, 2010;Yvon-Durocher et al., 2010;Zhao and Running, 2010) of a positive feedback in which increases in global temperature lower the ability of present soils and other parts of the biosphere to absorb CO 2”
From Breeding crop plants with deep roots: their role in sustainable carbon, nutrient and water sequestration (2011) · cites this paper as Bellamy et al., 2005
In the citing paper
“The first thing to note is the huge variation in the organic (carbon) content of soils -at least 15-fold in the UK alone (Bellamy et al., 2005;Bradley et al., 2005;Ostle et al., 2009).”
From Breeding crop plants with deep roots: their role in sustainable carbon, nutrient and water sequestration (2011) · cites this paper as Bellamy et al., 2005
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Citations
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“Bellamy et al. (2005) report carbon losses in the topsoils of England and Wales which they attribute to climate change.”
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Yao, Y., Ye, L., Tang, H., Tang, P., Wang, D., Si, H., Hu, W., & Ranst, É. V. (2015) · Open Geosciences · doi:10.1515/geo-2015-0034 · Cited by 17
Does Suburbanization Cause Ecological Deterioration? An Empirical Analysis of Shanghai, China
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Decreased Organic Carbon Associated With Land Management in Mediterranean Environments
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“Whereas this timeframe is relatively short, previous studies have demonstrated that soil carbon changes resulting from crop production activities can be accurately measured over this timespan (Bellamy et al., 2005; Milesi Delaye et al., 2013).”
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“Soils are the largest carbon reserve in terrestrial ecosystems, and small changes in soil carbon pool size can therefore strongly influence the global carbon budget (Batjes, 1996; Bellamy et al., 2005).”
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Testing a practical indicator for changing soil organic matter
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“The mean rate of C loss was greater at sites displaying initially higher levels of C, and for arable and permanent grass sites than non-agricultural soils (Bellamy et al., 2005).”
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“The number of observations and soil variability to a great extent in fl uence on soil attributes determination at large-scale (e.g., regional and national) studies (Bellamy et al., 2005; Chamberlain et al., 2010).”
Evidence for “Publication Bias” concerning Global Warming in Science and Nature
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“Undisturbed PWs are usually observed to be small sinks of C annually, but large sinks over many years (Gorham 1991, Thormann et al 1999, Bellamy et al 2005, Huang et al 2010, Vicari et al 2011, van der Valk 2013, Maltchik et al 2014).”
BackgroundHow good is the evidence to support investment in soil protection?
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“For England and Wales, there is evidence of SOC decline in some soils and land uses (Bellamy et al., 2005) and evidence of losses attributable to climate change in some soils with high levels of SOC (Barraclough et al.”
BackgroundSoil biodiversity and environmental change in European forests
Lukáč, M. (2017) · Central European Forestry Journal · doi:10.1515/forj-2017-0010 · Cited by 16
Ziche, D., Grüneberg, E., Hilbrig, L., Höhle, J., Kompa, T., Liski, J., Repo, A., & Wellbrock, N. (2018) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.327 · Cited by 15
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“It has a higher potential to store C compared to vegetation and atmosphere [1].”
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Effect of climate change on soil organic carbon in Inner Mongolia
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“This approach is also important for understanding the nutrient cycles, energy flows, and carbon exchanges in an ecosystem (Cramer et al., 2001; Bellamy et al., 2005).”
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Gupta, G., Singh, J., Pandey, P. C., Tomar, V., Rani, M., & Kumar, P. (2014) · Society of Earth Scientists series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05906-8_5 · Cited by 15
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“Even though balances calculated with HU-MOD did not have a strong link to absolute SOC change in the field experiments, there is some evidence from surveys on SOC change in European croplands that the true SOM balance on arable land in fact may be negative on average (Bellamy et al. 2005; Kutsch et al. 2010; Schrumpf…”
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Leifeld, J. (2006) · Geological Society London Special Publications · doi:10.1144/gsl.sp.2006.266.01.03 · Cited by 15
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“An example of the former is given by Bellamy et al. (2005), who collected soil profile samples over England and Wales from every 5 km × 5 km grid, with a total of 5,662 samples, and showed a SOC loss of 0.6% per year from 1978 to 2003.”
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“The on average stable or slightly increasing mean SOM contents in mineral soils in the Netherlands are in contrast with results of inventories in England, Wales (Bellamy et al., 2005), Flanders (Sleutel et al.”
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“Examples of some of those questions are: (cid:129) Can we confirm the loss of soil carbon (0 – 15 cm) as reported by Bellamy et al. (2005) There are efficiencies if a single monitoring programme can be designed with common indicators for both national reporting, but also more specific national or…”
Sustained impact of drought on wet shrublands mediated by soil physical changes
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“…inventories across England and Wales revealed that wet organic soils lost carbon an order of magnitude faster than well-drained mineral soils between 1978 and 2003, and suggested that these losses are likely to have been offsetting the absorption of C by terrestrial sinks (Bellamy et al. 2005).”
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“…of organic matter and nutrients and are major constraints to maintenance of soil quality, fertility, and agricultural productivity (van Asten 2003; Bellamy et al., 2005; Pathak et al., 2005; Singh 2008; Wani et al., 2009; Bekunda et al., 2010; Materechera 2010; Sahrawat et al., 2010b; Verhulst et…”
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“Similar conflicting results were reported by Bellamy et al. (2005) and Hopkins et al. (2010), who concluded that the SOC stock in grasslands in Britain has either significantly decreased or remained unchanged in recent decades.”
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“It has been suggested previously that warming (Bellamy et al., 2005) and changes in land-use and management can affect soil C (Smith et al.”
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“These elevated levels are attributed to a variety of influences, including increased air temperatures (Bellamy et al., 2005; Powlson, 2005; Toosi et al., 2014); precipitation (Clark et al.”
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Schulze, E., Ciais, P., Luyssaert, S., Schrumpf, M., Janssens, I. A., Thiruchittampalam, B., Theloke, J., Saurat, M., Bringezu, S., Lelieveld, J., et al. (2010) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02252.x · Cited by 12
“In Europe, the associated losses of other trace gases appear to be small (see also Bogner & Matthews, 2003).”
BackgroundAllen, L. H., Albrecht, S. L., Boote, K. J., Thomas, J. M., Newman, Y. C., & Skirvin, K. W. (2006) · Journal of Environmental Quality · doi:10.2134/jeq2005.0156 · Cited by 12
Spatial patterns of top soil carbon sensitivity to climate variables in northern Chinese grasslands
Zhao, W., Qi, J., Sun, G., & Li, F. (2012) · Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section B - Soil & Plant Science · doi:10.1080/09064710.2012.698641 · Cited by 12
“Increasing temperature could accelerate SR through soil microbial activity and soil organic matter turnover (Schimel et al., 1994; Bellamy et al., 2005; Schipper et al., 2007) while promoting NPP accumulation through prolonged plant growing seasons (Melillo et al., 1993; Myneni et al., 1997; Fang…”
BackgroundGupta, S. D., & DeLuca, T. H. (2012) · Forest Ecology and Management · doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2012.06.003 · Cited by 12
Choudhary, B. K., Majumdar, K. C., & Datta, B. K. (2016) · American Journal of Climate Change · doi:10.4236/ajcc.2016.53031 · Cited by 12
“Regulation function of tropical soil is receiving much interest by the scientific communities as it is an important part of the biosphere and has a higher potential to store carbon compared to vegetation and atmosphere [4].”
BackgroundSimulating soil organic carbon changes across toposequences under dryland agriculture using CQESTR
Gollany, H. T., & Elnaggar, A. (2017) · Ecological Modelling · doi:10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2017.03.024 · Cited by 13
Conservation management and ecosystem services in midwestern United States agricultural systems
Ugarte, C. M., Kwon, H., & Wander, M. M. (2018) · Journal of Soil and Water Conservation · doi:10.2489/jswc.73.4.422 · Cited by 12
“Bellamy et al. (2005) attributed declines in SOM stocks observed over a 20-year period in England and Wales to climate change.”
BackgroundCollier, S. M., Green, S. M., Inman, A., HOPKINS, D. W., Kendall, H., Jahn, M., & Dungait, J. A. J. (2020) · Soil Use and Management · doi:10.1111/sum.12658 · Cited by 12
Hubacek, K., & Reed, M. S. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-9632-7_10 · Cited by 12
“Peat soils are important carbon stores (Worrall et al., 2003), however, Bellamy et al. (2005) found alarming evidence that 80% of UK soils carbon losses might be from upland peat soils.”
BackgroundOverview on Response of Global Soil Carbon Pools to Climate and Land‐Use Changes
Eglin, T. K., Ciais, P., Piao, S. L., Barré, P., Belassen, V., Cadule, P., Chenu, C., Gasser, T., Reichstein, M., & Smith, P. (2011) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470960257.ch13 · Cited by 12
A Review of techniques for monitoring the success of peatland restoration
Bonnett, S. A. F., Ross, S., Linstead, C., & Maltby, E. (2009) · UWE Research Repository (UWE Bristol) · Cited by 12
Influence of Management on Soil Organic Carbon Dynamics in Northern Mixed‐Grass Rangeland
Schuman, G. E., Ingram, L. J., Stahl, P. D., Derner, J., Vance, G. F., & Morgan, J. A. (2009) · SSSA special publication series · doi:10.2136/sssaspecpub57.2ed.c11 · Cited by 12
Soil: Organic Matter and Available Water Capacity
Huntington, T. G. (2014) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1081/e-enrl-120049130 · Cited by 12
Mason, E., Cornu, S., Arrouays, D., Fantappiè, M., Jones, A., Götzinger, S., Spiegel, H., Oorts, K., Chartin, C., Borůvka, L., et al. (2025) · European Journal of Soil Science · doi:10.1111/ejss.70163 · Cited by 11
“Some (e.g., Bellamy et al. 2005) suggest reducing the interval to improve the detection of short-term changes, while others (e.g., Desaules et al. 2010) recommend adapting it to ensure that observed trends exceed methodological uncertainties.”
Akwakwa, G. H., & Xiaoyan, W. (2023) · Agronomy · doi:10.3390/agronomy13092363 · Cited by 11
Xin, X., Lan, X., Li, L., Tang, H., Guo, H., Li, H., Jiang, C., Liu, F., Shao, C., Qin, Y., et al. (2024) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174054 · Cited by 11
Vera-Vélez, R., Cota-Sánchez, J. H., & Grijalva-Olmedo, J. (2020) · Agricultural Systems · doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2020.103020 · Cited by 12
Orton, T. G., Saby, N., Arrouays, D., Walter, C. A., Lemercier, B., Schvartz, C., & Lark, R. M. (2012) · Environmetrics · doi:10.1002/env.2134 · Cited by 11
“A major issue relates to the changes which might happen to the large OC concentrations existing in low temperature areas (e.g., Bellamy et al., 2005).”
BackgroundSelf-citationLuo, Z., Wang, E., & Rossel, R. A. V. (2016) · Geoderma · doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.01.015 · Cited by 12
Effects of compost, biochar and manure on carbon mineralization of biogas residues applied to soil
Coban, H., Miltner, A., Centler, F., & Kästner, M. (2016) · European Journal of Soil Science · doi:10.1111/ejss.12326 · Cited by 13
“Over recent decades, a loss of SOM has been observed (Bellamy et al., 2005).”
BackgroundAstiani, D., Burhanuddin, B., TAHERDJADEH, M., & Curran, L. M. (2016) · Nusantara Bioscience · doi:10.13057/nusbiosci/n080211 · Cited by 11
“There have been many studies in investigating the efflux of carbon from the soil to climate change (e.g. Bellamy et al. 2005; Knorr et al. 2005; Kusler et al. 1999).”
BackgroundDoes carbon limitation reduce nitrogen retention in soil?
Schofield, H. K., Pettitt, T. R., Tappin, A. D., Rollinson, G. K., & Fitzsimons, M. F. (2017) · Environmental Chemistry Letters · doi:10.1007/s10311-017-0700-9 · Cited by 11
“Dissolved and particulate soil constituents are lost by rainfall through leaching and erosion; one study estimated that soils in England and Wales had lost 0.6 % carbon each year over several decades, in processes linked to climate change (Bellamy et al., 2005).”
InfluentialBhunia, G. S., Shit, P. K., Pourghasemi, H. R., & Edalat, M. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815226-3.00019-3 · Cited by 11
Design and Importance of Multi-tiered Ecological Monitoring Networks
Jones, K. B., Bogena, H., Vereecken, H., & Weltzin, J. F. (2010) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-8782-9_25 · Cited by 11
Li, Z. T., Li, X. G., Li, M., Yang, J., Turner, N. C., Wang, X., & Li, F. (2013) · Soil Science Society of America Journal · doi:10.2136/sssaj2013.05.0192 · Cited by 11
Developing Disease-Suppressive Soil Through Agronomic Management
Yadav, R. S., Panwar, J., Meena, H. N., Thirumalaisamy, P. P., & Meena, R. L. (2015) · Soil Biology · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-23075-7_4 · Cited by 11
Metadata
- Authors
- Bellamy, P. H., Loveland, P. J., Bradley, R. I., Lark, R. M., & Kirk, G. J. D.
- Affiliations
- Cranfield University (GB)
- Rothamsted Research (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Kirk, Guy J. D.
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2005-09
- Volume
- 437
- Issue
- 7056
- Pages
- 245-248
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2013840199
- Cited by
- 1,131
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 42 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 50 · 2016: 61 · 2015: 52 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 54 · 2012: 64
- FWCI
- 110.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Rothamsted Repository (Rothamsted Repository) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- CERES (Cranfield University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Dynamics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil erosion and sediment transport
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil Geostatistics and Mapping
- Keywords
- soil carbon loss, soil carbon feedback, climate change, global carbon budget, soil carbon content, terrestrial carbon sink, England and Wales
- MeSH terms
- Carbon, Carbon Dioxide, England, Poaceae, Soil, Soil Microbiology, Temperature, Wales, Water, Linear Models, Greenhouse Effect, Ecosystem, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century
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