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Carbon losses from all soils across England and Wales 1978–2003
Abstract
More than twice as much carbon is held in soils as in vegetation or the atmosphere, and changes in soil carbon content can have a large effect on the global carbon budget. The possibility that climate change is being reinforced by increased carbon dioxide emissions from soils owing to rising temperature is the subject of a continuing debate. But evidence for the suggested feedback mechanism has to date come solely from small-scale laboratory and field experiments and modelling studies. Here we use data from the National Soil Inventory of England and Wales obtained between 1978 and 2003 to show that carbon was lost from soils across England and Wales over the survey period at a mean rate of 0.6% yr(-1) (relative to the existing soil carbon content). We find that the relative rate of carbon loss increased with soil carbon content and was more than 2% yr(-1) in soils with carbon contents greater than 100 g kg(-1). The relationship between rate of carbon loss and carbon content is irrespective of land use, suggesting a link to climate change. Our findings indicate that losses of soil carbon in England and Wales--and by inference in other temperate regions-are likely to have been offsetting absorption of carbon by terrestrial sinks.
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“UK wide surveys recording trends in soil carbon over time (at the 0–15 cm depth) have also reported significant reductions (~6%) in soil carbon under managed fertile grasslands between 1998 and 2007 (Bellamy, Loveland, Bradley, Lark, & Kirk, 2005; Emmett et al., 2010).”
From Measured and modelled effect of land‐use change from temperate grassland to Miscanthus on soil carbon stocks after 12 years (2019) · cites this paper as Bellamy et al., 2005
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredIn the citing paper
“In addition, there are indications (Bellamy et al., 2005;Monson et al., 2006;Luo, 2007;Arnone et al., 2008;Bond-Lamberty and Thomson, 2010;Smith and Fang, 2010;Yvon-Durocher et al., 2010;Zhao and Running, 2010) of a positive feedback in which increases in global temperature lower the ability of present soils and other parts of the biosphere to absorb CO 2”
From Breeding crop plants with deep roots: their role in sustainable carbon, nutrient and water sequestration (2011) · cites this paper as Bellamy et al., 2005
In the citing paper
“The first thing to note is the huge variation in the organic (carbon) content of soils -at least 15-fold in the UK alone (Bellamy et al., 2005;Bradley et al., 2005;Ostle et al., 2009).”
From Breeding crop plants with deep roots: their role in sustainable carbon, nutrient and water sequestration (2011) · cites this paper as Bellamy et al., 2005
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“Bellamy et al. (2005) demonstrated that OC has been lost from soils across England and Wales at a mean rate of 0.6% yr 1 (relative to the existing SOC concentration), over the period 1979–2003.”
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“Therefore, some researchers have predicted that climate change (a rise in temperature) will increase the heterotrophic respiration of soil OM and the C efflux from soils to the atmosphere, thus contributing to a positive feedback effect (Bellamy et al., 2005; Knorr et al., 2005).”
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“Modeled C storage from both control and amended plots was consistently negative across years and sites (Appendix Table A1), indicating that these annual grasslands were losing C, findings that have been observed in many grassland ecosystems (Ojima et al. 1994, Bellamy et al. 2005, Chou et al. 2008).”
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“It has been estimated that soils in England and Wales are losing C at a mean rate of 0.6% year 1 (Bellamy et al., 2005).”
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“For example, Bellamy et al. (2005) reported losses of SOC in soils of Wales and England between 1978 and 2003 and related them to enhanced mineralization of SOC.”
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“Bellamy et al. (2005) found C losses from all soils, suggesting that climate change was already also having an effect on soil C storage.”
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“While carbon pools are expected to grow and contract through time, in the absence of major and175 recent disturbance events carbon pool trajectories are expected to exhibit gradual changes on inter- annual timescales (e.g. Bellamy et al., 2005).”
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“Decline in soil organic matter has been a general feature of tillage agriculture (Janzen, 2006) and C losses have been found to be occurring at a national scale in the UK, for example (Bellamy et al., 2005).”
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Xiong, X., Grunwald, S., Myers, D. B., Ross, C. W., Harris, W. G., & Comerford, N. B. (2014) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.088 · Cited by 134
“Some studies have shown that the warming temperature can accelerate microbial decomposition of SOM and cause a net loss of carbon (C) to the atmosphere (Davidson et al., 2000; Bellamy et al., 2005; Dorrepaal et al., 2009).”
BackgroundToberman, H., Evans, C., Freeman, C. J., Fenner, N., White, M., Emmett, B. A., & Artz, R. (2008) · Soil Biology and Biochemistry · doi:10.1016/j.soilbio.2008.01.004 · Cited by 133
Chen, S., Arrouays, D., Angers, D. A., Martin, M. P., & Walter, C. A. (2018) · Soil and Tillage Research · doi:10.1016/j.still.2018.11.001 · Cited by 140
Meersmans, J., van Wesemael, B., Ridder, F. D., Dotti, M. F., Baets, S. D., & Molle, M. V. (2009) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.01855.x · Cited by 139
“Most studies are limited to SOC stock in the top soil, e.g. France top 0.3 m (Arrouays et al., 2001), England and Wales top 0.15 m (Bellamy et al., 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialQuantifying changes in multiple ecosystem services during 1992–2012 in the Sanjiang Plain of China
Wang, Z., Mao, D., Li, L., Jia, M., Dong, Z., Miao, Z., Ren, C., & Song, C. (2015) · The Science of The Total Environment · doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.01.007 · Cited by 133
Holistic environmental soil-landscape modeling of soil organic carbon
Xiong, X., Grunwald, S., Myers, D. B., Kim, J., Harris, W. G., & Comerford, N. B. (2014) · Environmental Modelling & Software · doi:10.1016/j.envsoft.2014.03.004 · Cited by 129
Ecosystem service benefits of contrasting conservation strategies in a human-dominated region
Eigenbrod, F., Anderson, B. J., Armsworth, P. R., Heinemeyer, A., Jackson, S. F., Parnell, M., Thomas, C. D., & Gaston, K. J. (2009) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.0528 · Cited by 131
“For example, the areas most important for carbon sequestration may not be the peat of the uplands, where most carbon is stored in England, as soil carbon may be declining in England and Wales (Bellamy et al. 2005).”
BackgroundEnlisting wild grass genes to combat nitrification in wheat farming: A nature-based solution
Subbarao, G. V., Kishii, M., Bozal‐Leorri, A., Ortiz‐Monasterio, I., Gao, X., Ibba, M. I., Karwat, H., González‐Moro, M. B., González‐Murua, C., Yoshihashi, T., et al. (2021) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2106595118 · Cited by 131
Soil organic carbon contents of agricultural land in the Netherlands between 1984 and 2004
Reijneveld, A., Wensem, J. V., & Oenema, O. (2009) · Geoderma · doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2009.06.007 · Cited by 132
Impact of Sampling Depth on Differences in Soil Carbon Stocks in Long‐Term Agroecosystem Experiments
VandenBygaart, A. J., Bremer, E., McConkey, B. G., Ellert, B. H., Janzen, H. H., Angers, D. A., Carter, M. R., Drury, C. F., Lafond, G. P., & McKenzie, R. H. (2010) · Soil Science Society of America Journal · doi:10.2136/sssaj2010.0099 · Cited by 127
“In Europe, studies utilizing historical changes collected from soil mapping databases have been used to assess changes in SOC stocks for recent time periods (Bellamy et al., 2005; Reijneveld et al., 2009; Hanegraaf et al., 2009; Mestdagh et al., 2009).”
BackgroundThe Role of Livestock Production in Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles
Steinfeld, H., & Wassenaar, T. (2007) · Annual Review of Environment and Resources · doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.32.041806.143508 · Cited by 128
Modeling of Soil Organic Carbon Fractions Using Visible–Near‐Infrared Spectroscopy
Vasques, G. M., Grunwald, S., & Sickman, J. O. (2009) · Soil Science Society of America Journal · doi:10.2136/sssaj2008.0015 · Cited by 128
“Recent evidence suggests that soil C is being lost across wide regions in response to climate change (Bellamy et al., 2005).”
BackgroundEnvironmental science: Carbon unlocked from soils
Schulze, E., & Freibauer, A. (2005) · Nature · doi:10.1038/437205a · Cited by 115
Implications of a large global root biomass for carbon sink estimates and for soil carbon dynamics
Robinson, D. (2007) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.1012 · Cited by 127
“6% yr (range 0–2% yr; Bellamy et al. 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialCheng, X., Yang, Y., Li, M., Dou, X., & Zhang, Q. (2012) · Plant and Soil · doi:10.1007/s11104-012-1446-6 · Cited by 124
“…and Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes of the Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China Even a small change in soil organic carbon (SOC) storage could greatly affect atmospheric CO2 concentrations (Bellamy et al. 2005; Davidson and Janssens 2006; Yang et al. 2010).”
A review of the impacts of degradation threats on soil properties in the UK
Gregory, A. S., Ritz, K., McGrath, S. P., Quinton, J. N., Goulding, K. W. T., Jones, R., Harris, J. A., Bol, R., Wallace, P., Pilgrim, E. S., et al. (2015) · Soil Use and Management · doi:10.1111/sum.12212 · Cited by 137
“Since the 1940s, the area covered by permanent grassland has reduced and in arable systems, there has been a reduction in the use of manures and an increase in cultivation depth (Bellamy et al., 2005).”
BackgroundInfluentialGallego-Sala, A. V., Clark, J. M., House, J. I., Orr, H. G., Prentice, I. C., Smith, P., Farewell, T. S., & Chapman, S. J. (2010) · Climate Research · doi:10.3354/cr00911 · Cited by 124
Land use and climate change in the UK
Rounsevell, M., & Reay, D. (2009) · Land Use Policy · doi:10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.09.007 · Cited by 124
The “4 per 1000” initiative: A credibility issue for the soil science community?
Baveye, P. C., Berthelin, J., Tessier, D., & Lemaire, G. (2017) · Geoderma · doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.05.005 · Cited by 141
Lynch, J. P., Mooney, S. J., Strock, C., & Schneider, H. (2021) · Plant Cell & Environment · doi:10.1111/pce.14213 · Cited by 134
Changes in soil pH across England and Wales in response to decreased acid deposition
Kirk, G. J. D., Bellamy, P., & Lark, R. M. (2009) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2009.02135.x · Cited by 122
“The accuracy with which sites could be relocated was tested by sending surveyors back to a sample of sites as described by Bellamy et al. (2005).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citationEmission of methane from chalk streams has potential implications for agricultural practices
Sanders, I. A., Heppell, C., Cotton, J. A., Wharton, G., Hildrew, A. G., FLOWERS, E. J., & Trimmer, M. (2007) · Freshwater Biology · doi:10.1111/j.1365-2427.2007.01745.x · Cited by 122
Fusion of Soil and Remote Sensing Data to Model Soil Properties
Grunwald, S., Vasques, G. M., & Rivero, R. G. (2015) · Advances in agronomy · doi:10.1016/bs.agron.2014.12.004 · Cited by 121
Heterotrophic soil respiration in forestry-drained peatlands
Minkkinen, K., Laine, J., Shurpali, N., Mäkiranta, P., Alm, J., & Penttilä, T. (2024) · Jukuri (Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke)) · doi:10.60910/u3vm-7kmg · Cited by 126
Use of composts in the remediation of heavy metal contaminated soil
Farrell, M., & Jones, D. L. (2009) · Journal of Hazardous Materials · doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.10.044 · Cited by 121
“As soil organic matter levels have declined greatly in ecent years [3], it is advantageous to recycle as much of this ‘waste’ rganic matter as possible, without unduly increasing the loading f contaminants onto uncontaminated soils.”
BackgroundMeasuring respiration profiles of soil microbial communities across Europe using MicroResp™ method
Creamer, R., Stone, D., Berry, P., & Kuiper, I. (2015) · Applied Soil Ecology · doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2015.08.004 · Cited by 119
Input constraints to food production: the impact of soil degradation
Rickson, R. J., Deeks, L. K., Graves, A. R., Harris, J. A. H., Kibblewhite, M., & Sakrabani, R. (2015) · Food Security · doi:10.1007/s12571-015-0437-x · Cited by 130
“Several studies have shown the decline of soil organic matter since the post-war period (e.g., Bellamy et al. 2005) largely attributed to intensive cultivation, with concomitant declines in soil biota.”
BackgroundRosa, D. D., Ballabio, C., Lugato, E., Fasiolo, M., Jones, A., & Panagos, P. (2023) · Global Change Biology · doi:10.1111/gcb.16992 · Cited by 135
“While such data already exist and, in conjunction with data-driven modelling approaches, have been instrumental in assessing SOC changes at national level [e.g. in Argentina (Heuvelink et al., 2021), Hungary (Szatmári et al., 2019), England and Wales (Bellamy et al., 2005), Finland (Heikkinen et al., 2022), Denmark (T…”
BackgroundResultCarbon storage in relation to soil size-fractions under tropical tree-based land-use systems
Saha, S. K., Nair, P. K. R., Nair, V. D., & Kumar, B. M. (2009) · Plant and Soil · doi:10.1007/s11104-009-0123-x · Cited by 119
“Soil is an important part of the biosphere in sequestering C and has a higher potential to store C compared to vegetation and atmosphere (Bellamy et al. 2005).”
BackgroundContemporary Evidence of Soil Carbon Loss in the U.S. Corn Belt
Senthilkumar, S., Basso, B., Kravchenko, A., & Robertson, G. P. (2009) · Soil Science Society of America Journal · doi:10.2136/sssaj2009.0044 · Cited by 117
Jones, K. B., Zurlini, G., Kienast, F., Petrosillo, I., Edwards, T. C., Wade, T. G., Li, B.-L., & Zaccarelli, N. (2012) · Landscape Ecology · doi:10.1007/s10980-012-9794-4 · Cited by 121
“…and food, increased risks to natural hazards such as floods and fires, and increased disease and exposure to harmful chemicals through environmental modifications and release of harmful chemicals into the environment (Houghton 1994; Ojima et al. 1994; Bellamy et al. 2005; Young and Harris 2005).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Bellamy, P. H., Loveland, P. J., Bradley, R. I., Lark, R. M., & Kirk, G. J. D.
- Affiliations
- Cranfield University (GB)
- Rothamsted Research (GB)
- Corresponding author
- Kirk, Guy J. D.
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2005-09
- Volume
- 437
- Issue
- 7056
- Pages
- 245-248
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2013840199
- Cited by
- 1,131
- References
- 31
- Citations by year
- 2026: 18 · 2025: 26 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 33 · 2022: 42 · 2021: 46 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 42 · 2018: 50 · 2017: 50 · 2016: 61 · 2015: 52 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 54 · 2012: 64
- FWCI
- 110.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Rothamsted Repository (Rothamsted Repository) (submittedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- CERES (Cranfield University) (submittedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Dynamics
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil erosion and sediment transport
- Life Sciences › Agricultural and Biological Sciences › Soil Science › Soil Geostatistics and Mapping
- Keywords
- soil carbon loss, soil carbon feedback, climate change, global carbon budget, soil carbon content, terrestrial carbon sink, England and Wales
- MeSH terms
- Carbon, Carbon Dioxide, England, Poaceae, Soil, Soil Microbiology, Temperature, Wales, Water, Linear Models, Greenhouse Effect, Ecosystem, History, 20th Century, History, 21st Century
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