Random numbers certified by Bell’s theorem
Open accessAbstract
Randomness is a fundamental feature of nature and a valuable resource for applications ranging from cryptography and gambling to numerical simulation of physical and biological systems. Random numbers, however, are difficult to characterize mathematically, and their generation must rely on an unpredictable physical process. Inaccuracies in the theoretical modelling of such processes or failures of the devices, possibly due to adversarial attacks, limit the reliability of random number generators in ways that are difficult to control and detect. Here, inspired by earlier work on non-locality-based and device-independent quantum information processing, we show that the non-local correlations of entangled quantum particles can be used to certify the presence of genuine randomness. It is thereby possible to design a cryptographically secure random number generator that does not require any assumption about the internal working of the device. Such a strong form of randomness generation is impossible classically and possible in quantum systems only if certified by a Bell inequality violation. We carry out a proof-of-concept demonstration of this proposal in a system of two entangled atoms separated by approximately one metre. The observed Bell inequality violation, featuring near perfect detection efficiency, guarantees that 42 new random numbers are generated with 99 per cent confidence. Our results lay the groundwork for future device-independent quantum information experiments and for addressing fundamental issues raised by the intrinsic randomness of quantum theory.
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The randomness expansion protocol against classical adversaries was first experimentally demonstrated by Pironio et al. in an ion-trap system, which closes the efficiency loophole but not the locality loophole.
“The randomness expansion protocol against classical adversaries is fi rst experimentally demonstrated by Pironio et al . 63 in an ion-trap system, which closes the ef fi ciency loophole but not the locality loophole.”
From Quantum random number generation (2016) · cites this paper as [63]
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- Authors
- Pironio, S., Acín, A., Massar, S., de la Giroday, A. B., Matsukevich, D. N., Maunz, P., Olmschenk, S., Hayes, D., Luo, L., Manning, T. A., & Monroe, C.
- Affiliations
- Université Libre de Bruxelles (BE)
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avançats (ES)
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (US)
- Corresponding author
- Acín, A.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature
- Published
- 2010-04
- Volume
- 464
- Issue
- 7291
- Pages
- 1021-1024
- ISSN
- 0028-0836 (ISSN-L)
- 1476-4687
- OpenAlex
- W2058302064
- Semantic Scholar
- 29dd7297102a2f248323aa5450ea7b3980180091
- Cited by
- 1,420
- References
- 61
- Citations by year
- 2026: 66 · 2025: 103 · 2024: 90 · 2023: 94 · 2022: 107 · 2021: 111 · 2020: 107 · 2019: 123 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 68 · 2016: 97 · 2015: 87 · 2014: 88 · 2013: 60 · 2012: 62
- FWCI
- 61.83
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Nature (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- Dépôt institutionnel de l'Université libre de Bruxelles (Université Libre de Bruxelles) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Quantum Information and Cryptography
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Quantum Mechanics and Applications
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Acoustics and Ultrasonics › Random lasers and scattering media
- Keywords
- certified randomness, Bell inequality violation, quantum randomness, entangled atoms, device-independent quantum information, randomness generation, quantum cryptography, nonlocal correlations
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