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Exposure to per-fluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances leads to immunotoxicity: epidemiological and toxicological evidence
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In this perspective, we evaluate key and emerging epidemiological and toxicological data concerning immunotoxicity of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and seek to reconcile conflicting conclusions from two reviews published in 2016. We summarize ways that immunosuppression and immunoenhancement are defined and explain how specific outcomes are used to evaluate immunotoxicity in humans and experimental animals. We observe that different approaches to defining immunotoxicological outcomes, particularly those that do not produce clinical disease, may lead to different conclusions from epidemiological and toxicological studies. The fundamental point that we make is that aspects of epidemiological studies considered as limitations can be minimized when data from toxicological studies support epidemiological findings. Taken together, we find that results of epidemiological studies, supported by findings from toxicological studies, provide strong evidence that humans exposed to PFOA and PFOS are at risk for immunosuppression.
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“Emerging evidence confirms that PFASs are immunotoxic, particularly in children.”
From Exposure to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Healthcare: Environmental and Clinical Insights (2025) · cites this paper as [84]
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“Exposure has been linked to diminished antibody responses to routine vaccinations and an increased susceptibility to respiratory infections, driven by the dysregulation of cytokine profiles and systemic effects on both innate and adaptive immunity [6,84].”
From Exposure to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) in Healthcare: Environmental and Clinical Insights (2025) · cites this paper as [84]
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Metadata
- Authors
- DeWitt, J. C., Blossom, S. J., & Schaider, L. A.
- Affiliations
- East Carolina University (US)
- Arkansas Children's Research Institute (US)
- Silent Spring Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- DeWitt, Jamie C.
- Venue
- Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology
- Published
- 2018-11-27
- Volume
- 29
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 148-156
- ISSN
- 1559-0631 (ISSN-L)
- 1559-064X
- PMC
- PMC6380927
- OpenAlex
- W2903188676
- Cited by
- 241
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 31 · 2025: 34 · 2024: 35 · 2023: 42 · 2022: 27 · 2021: 33 · 2020: 25 · 2019: 13
- FWCI
- 1.49
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Licence
- www.springer.com/tdm (tdm)
- Locations
- Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (acceptedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (P42ES027706)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Environmental Science › Environmental Chemistry › Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances research
- Life Sciences › Immunology and Microbiology › Immunology › Immunotoxicology and immune responses
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Polymers and Plastics › Synthesis and properties of polymers
- Keywords
- perfluorooctanoic acid, PFOS, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, immunotoxicity, immunosuppression, immune enhancement, human exposure, toxicological evidence, epidemiological evidence
- MeSH terms
- Animals, Immunotoxins, Caprylates, Environmental Exposure, Fluorocarbons, Humans, Alkanesulfonic Acids, Risk Assessment
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