Nucleus segmentation across imaging experiments: the 2018 Data Science Bowl
Open accessAbstract
Segmenting the nuclei of cells in microscopy images is often the first step in the quantitative analysis of imaging data for biological and biomedical applications. Many bioimage analysis tools can segment nuclei in images but need to be selected and configured for every experiment. The 2018 Data Science Bowl attracted 3,891 teams worldwide to make the first attempt to build a segmentation method that could be applied to any two-dimensional light microscopy image of stained nuclei across experiments, with no human interaction. Top participants in the challenge succeeded in this task, developing deep-learning-based models that identified cell nuclei across many image types and experimental conditions without the need to manually adjust segmentation parameters. This represents an important step toward configuration-free bioimage analysis software tools.
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
The claims and statistics of this paper haven’t been checked yet.
Run the check — free, no account needed. It reads the open-access text and checks the sources it cites.
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The ensemble of models for nuclear segmentation did not show an improvement compared to the generalist model.
“However, we did not see an improvement for the ensemble of models compared to the generalist model (Extended Data Fig. 2), consistent with the results of ref. 27.”
From Cellpose 2.0: how to train your own model (2022) · cites this paper as [27]
The Results section (‘Top solutions improve usability and accuracy of nucleus segmentation’; page unavailable) reports that five models trained separately for image types did not reach the performance of the top solution. That is consistent with the citing sentence’s general point, but it is not a direct comparison of an ensemble against a generalist model: the paper describes the top solution itself as a 32-network ensemble. (LLM, conf=0.82)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe LiveCell study used a different average precision score from ours, which additionally requires a confidence score per ROI, while we used the average precision formulation from the Data Science Bowl challenge and other studies.
“Finally, we point out that the LiveCell study used a different average precision score from ours, which additionally requires a confidence score per ROI, while we used the average precision formulation from the Data Science Bowl challenge and other studies12,27,35.”
From Cellpose 2.0: how to train your own model (2022) · cites this paper as [27]
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
The self-check needs the paper’s full text.
Cites
Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognition
He, K., Zhang, X., Ren, S., & Sun, J. (2016) · 2016 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2016.90 · Cited by 235,474 · see citing works
U-Net: Convolutional Networks for Biomedical Image Segmentation
Ronneberger, O., Fischer, P., & Brox, T. (2015) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-24574-4_28 · Cited by 99,404 · see citing works
LeCun, Y., Bengio, Y., & Hinton, G. (2015) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature14539 · Cited by 84,126 · see citing works
Fiji: an open-source platform for biological-image analysis
Schindelin, J., Arganda-Carreras, I., Frise, E., Kaynig, V., Longair, M., Pietzsch, T., Preibisch, S., Rueden, C., Saalfeld, S., Schmid, B., et al. (2012) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/nmeth.2019 · Cited by 66,890 · see citing works
Microsoft COCO: Common Objects in Context
Lin, T.-Y., Maire, M., Belongie, S., Hays, J., Perona, P., Ramanan, D., Dollár, P., & Zitnick, C. L. (2014) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-10602-1_48 · Cited by 45,460 · see citing works
A Threshold Selection Method from Gray-Level Histograms
Otsu, N. (1979) · IEEE Transactions on Systems Man and Cybernetics · doi:10.1109/tsmc.1979.4310076 · Cited by 43,748 · see citing works
ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge
Russakovsky, O., Deng, J., Su, H., Krause, J., Satheesh, S., Ma, S., Huang, Z., Karpathy, A., Khosla, A., Bernstein, M., et al. (2015) · International Journal of Computer Vision · doi:10.1007/s11263-015-0816-y · Cited by 39,380 · see citing works
Feature Pyramid Networks for Object Detection
Lin, T.-Y., Dollar, P., Girshick, R., He, K., Hariharan, B., & Belongie, S. (2017) · 2017 IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2017.106 · Cited by 30,939 · see citing works
He, K., Gkioxari, G., Dollar, P., & Girshick, R. (2017) · 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv.2017.322 · Cited by 29,137 · see citing works
Unpaired image-to-image translation using cycle-consistent adversarial networks
Zhu, J.-Y., Park, T., Isola, P., & Efros, A. A. (2017) · 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv.2017.244 · Cited by 23,602 · see citing works
The pascal visual object classes (VOC) challenge
Everingham, M., Van Gool, L., Williams, C. K. I., Winn, J., & Zisserman, A. (2010) · International Journal of Computer Vision · doi:10.1007/s11263-009-0275-4 · Cited by 19,599 · see citing works
Identity mappings in deep residual networks
He, K., Zhang, X., Ren, S., & Sun, J. (2016) · Lecture Notes in Computer Science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46493-0_38 · Cited by 10,741 · see citing works
Chan, T. F.-C., & Vese, L. A. (2001) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/83.902291 · Cited by 10,279 · see citing works
SLIC Superpixels Compared to State-of-the-Art Superpixel Methods
Achanta, R., Shaji, A., Smith, K., Lucchi, A., Fua, P., & Susstrunk, S. E. (2012) · IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tpami.2012.120 · Cited by 9,232 · see citing works
CellProfiler: image analysis software for identifying and quantifying cell phenotypes
Carpenter, A. E., Jones, T. R., Lamprecht, M. R., Clarke, C., Kang, I. H., Friman, O., Guertin, D. A., Chang, J. H., Lindquist, R. A., Moffat, J., et al. (2006) · Genome biology · doi:10.1186/gb-2006-7-10-r100 · Cited by 5,077 · see citing works
Self-citationInception-v4, Inception-ResNet and the Impact of Residual Connections on Learning
Szegedy, C., Ioffe, S., Vanhoucke, V., & Alemi, A. (2017) · Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1609/aaai.v31i1.11231 · Cited by 4,636 · see citing works
(2018) · Cited by 3,510 · see citing works
U-Net: deep learning for cell counting, detection, and morphometry
Falk, T., Mai, D., Bensch, R., Çiçek, Ö., Abdulkadir, A., Marrakchi, Y., Böhm, A., Deubner, J., Jäckel, Z., Seiwald, K., et al. (2018) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-018-0261-2 · Cited by 1,912 · see citing works
CellProfiler 3.0: Next-generation image processing for biology
McQuin, C., Goodman, A., Chernyshev, V. S., Kamentsky, L. D., Cimini, B. A., Karhohs, K. W., Doan, M., Ding, L., Rafelski, S. M., Thirstrup, D. J., et al. (2018) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.2005970 · Cited by 1,835 · see citing works
Self-citationDeep learning for cellular image analysis
Moen, E., Bannon, D., Kudo, T., Graf, W., Covert, M., & Van Valen, D. (2019) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-019-0403-1 · Cited by 1,225 · see citing works
Meyer, F., & Beucher, S. (1990) · Journal of Visual Communication and Image Representation · doi:10.1016/1047-3203(90)90014-m · Cited by 1,175 · see citing works
Ilastik: Interactive learning and segmentation toolkit
Sommer, C., Straehle, C., Köthe, U., & Hamprecht, F. A. (2011) · IEEE International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging (ISBI) · doi:10.1109/isbi.2011.5872394 · Cited by 1,145 · see citing works
Stacked Sparse Autoencoder (SSAE) for Nuclei Detection on Breast Cancer Histopathology Images
Xu, J., Xiang, L., Liu, Q., Gilmore, H., Wu, J., Tang, J., & Madabhushi, A. (2016) · IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging · doi:10.1109/tmi.2015.2458702 · Cited by 854 · see citing works
Dual Path NetworksPreprint
Chen, Y., Li, J., Xiao, H., Jin, X., Yan, S., & Feng, J. (2017) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.48550/arxiv.1707.01629 · Cited by 714 · see citing works
Cruz-Roa, Á., Basavanhally, A. N., Gonzalez, F. A., Gilmore, H. L., Feldman, M. D., Ganesan, S., Shih, N. N. C., Tomaszewski, J., & Madabhushi, A. (2014) · Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE · doi:10.1117/12.2043872 · Cited by 613 · see citing works
An objective comparison of cell-tracking algorithms
Ulman, V., Maška, M., Magnusson, K. E. G., Ronneberger, O., Haubold, C., Harder, N., Matula, P., Matula, P., Svoboda, D., Radojević, M., et al. (2017) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/nmeth.4473 · Cited by 572 · see citing works
Deep Watershed Transform for Instance Segmentation
Bai, M., & Urtasun, R. (2017) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2017.305 · Cited by 563 · see citing works
Van Valen, D. A., Kudo, T., Lane, K. M., Macklin, D. N., Quach, N. T., DeFelice, M. M., Maayan, I., Tanouchi, Y., Ashley, E. A., & Covert, M. W. (2016) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005177 · Cited by 557 · see citing works
Xing, F., & Yang, L. (2016) · IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/rbme.2016.2515127 · Cited by 518 · see citing works
Cell Segmentation: 50 Years Down the Road [Life Sciences]
Meijering, E. H. W. (2012) · IEEE Signal Processing Magazine · doi:10.1109/msp.2012.2204190 · Cited by 474 · see citing works
Applying watershed algorithms to the segmentation of clustered nuclei
Malpica, N., Ortíz-de-Solórzano, C., Vaquero, J. J., Santos, A., Vallcorba, I., García‐Sagredo, J. M., & del Pozo, F. (1998) · Cytometry · doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0320(19970801)28:4 · Cited by 453 · see citing works
Microscopy-Based High-Content Screening
Boutros, M., Heigwer, F., & Laufer, C. (2015) · Cell · doi:10.1016/j.cell.2015.11.007 · Cited by 383 · see citing works
Wählby, C., Sintorn, I., Erlandsson, F., Borgefors, G., & Bengtsson, E. W. (2004) · Journal of Microscopy · doi:10.1111/j.0022-2720.2004.01338.x · Cited by 354 · see citing works
Evaluation of Deep Learning Strategies for Nucleus Segmentation in Fluorescence Images
Caicedo, J. C., Roth, J., Goodman, A., Becker, T., Karhohs, K. W., Broisin, M., Molnár, C., McQuin, C., Singh, S., Theis, F. J., et al. (2019) · Cytometry Part A · doi:10.1002/cyto.a.23863 · Cited by 327 · see citing works
Self-citationMachine learning in cell biology – teaching computers to recognize phenotypes
Sommer, C., & Gerlich, D. W. (2013) · Journal of Cell Science · doi:10.1242/jcs.123604 · Cited by 298 · see citing works
Hollandi, R., Szkalisity, A., Toth, T., Tasnadi, E., Molnar, C., Mathe, B., Grexa, I., Molnar, J., Balind, A., Gorbe, M., et al. (2020) · Cell Systems · doi:10.1016/j.cels.2020.04.003 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Self-citationHigh-Content Screening for Quantitative Cell Biology
Ušaj, M. M., Styles, E. B., Verster, A. J., Friesen, H., Boone, C. M., & Andrews, B. (2016) · Trends in Cell Biology · doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2016.03.008 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Detection and Segmentation of Cell Nuclei in Virtual Microscopy Images: A Minimum-Model Approach
Wienert, S., Heim, D., Saeger, K., Stenzinger, A., Beil, M., Hufnagl, P., Dietel, M., Denkert, C., & Klauschen, F. (2012) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/srep00503 · Cited by 236 · see citing works
Machine learning applications in cell image analysis
Kan, A. (2017) · Immunology and Cell Biology · doi:10.1038/icb.2017.16 · Cited by 165 · see citing works
A deep learning algorithm for one-step contour aware nuclei segmentation of histopathology images
Cui, Y., Zhang, G., Liu, Z., Xiong, Z., & Hu, J. (2019) · Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing · doi:10.1007/s11517-019-02008-8 · Cited by 163 · see citing works
Segmentation of confocal microscope images of cell nuclei in thick tissue sections
Ortíz-de-Solórzano, C., Rodriguez, E. G., Jones, A. V., Pinkel, D., Gray, J. W., Sudar, D., & Lockett, S. J. (1999) · Journal of Microscopy · doi:10.1046/j.1365-2818.1999.00463.x · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Automated Training of Deep Convolutional Neural Networks for Cell Segmentation
Sadanandan, S. K., Ranefall, P., Guyader, S. L., & Wählby, C. (2017) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-017-07599-6 · Cited by 132 · see citing works
Jungo, A., Meier, R., Ermiş, E., Blatti-Moreno, M., Herrmann, E., Wiest, R., & Reyes, M. (2018) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-00928-1_77 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Comparison of segmentation algorithms for fluorescence microscopy images of cells
Dima, A. A., Elliott, J. T., Filliben, J. J., Halter, M. W., Peskin, A. P., Bernal, J., Kociołek, M., Brady, M. C., Tang, H. C., & Plant, A. L. (2011) · Cytometry Part A · doi:10.1002/cyto.a.21079 · Cited by 109 · see citing works
Review of free software tools for image analysis of fluorescence cell micrographs
Wiesmann, V., Franz, D., Held, C., Münzenmayer, C., Palmisano, R., & Wittenberg, T. C. (2014) · Journal of Microscopy · doi:10.1111/jmi.12184 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
Wen, S., Kurç, T., Hou, L., Saltz, J. H., Gupta, R., Batiste, R. C., Zhao, T., Nguyen, V., Samaras, D., & Zhu, W. (2018) · Europe PMC (PubMed Central) · Cited by 47 · see citing works
Algorithms for Applied Digital Image Cytometry
Wählby, C. (2003) · KTH Publication Database DiVA (KTH Royal Institute of Technology) · Cited by 26 · see citing works
Object‐Oriented Segmentation of Cell Nuclei in Fluorescence Microscopy Images
Koyuncu, C., Çetin-Atalay, R., & Gündüz-Demir, Ç. (2018) · Cytometry Part A · doi:10.1002/cyto.a.23594 · Cited by 19 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
1 of the 49 references couldn’t be matched to a known paper.
Research works printed but not linked: 5
- [21]Hollandi, R. et al. A deep learning framework for nucleus segmentation using image style transfer. Preprint at bioRxiv10.1101/580605 (2019). PMC8247631 34222682
- [24]Jungo, A. et al. in Medical Image Computing and Computer Assisted Intervention – MICCAI 2018 (eds Frangi, A. et al.) 682–690 (Springer, 2018).
- [29]Bolukbasi, T., Chang, K.-W., Zou, J. Y., Saligrama, V. & Kalai, A. T. in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (eds Lee, D. D. et al.) 4349–4357 (papers.nips.cc, 2016).
- [33]He, K., Gkioxari, G., Dollár, P. & Girshick, R. Mask R-CNN. In Proc. 2017 IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision 2980–2988 (ICCV, 2017).
- [54]Ren, S., He, K., Girshick, R. & Sun, J. in Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 28 (eds. Cortes, C. et al.) 91–99 (Curran Associates, 2015).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Kirillov, A., Mintun, E., Ravi, N., Mao, H., Rolland, C., Gustafson, L., Xiao, T., Whitehead, S., Berg, A. C., Lo, W.-Y., et al. (2023) · 2023 IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv51070.2023.00371 · Cited by 11,953 · see citing works
“ADE20K[117] BBBC038v1[12] Cityscapes[25] DOORS[80] DRAM[24] EgoHOS[113] GTEA[34,63] Hypersim[86] IBD[17] iShape[111] LVIS[44] NDD20[100] NDISPark[22,23] OVIS[81] PPDLS[74] Plittersdorf[46] STREETS[91] TimberSeg[38] TrashCan[52] VISOR[28,27] WoodScape[112] PIDRay[104] ZeroWaste-f[6] Figure 8: Samples from the 23 divers…”
BackgroundInfluentialCellpose: a generalist algorithm for cellular segmentation
Stringer, C., Wang, T., Michaelos, M., & Pachitariu, M. (2021) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-020-01018-x · Cited by 4,369 · see citing works
Albumentations: fast and flexible image augmentations
Buslaev, A., Iglovikov, V. I., Khvedchenya, E., Parinov, A., Druzhinin, M., & Kalinin, A. A. (2020) · Information · doi:10.3390/info11020125 · Cited by 2,714 · see citing works
U-Net and Its Variants for Medical Image Segmentation: A Review of Theory and Applications
Siddique, N. A., Paheding, S., Elkin, C. P., & Devabhaktuni, V. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3086020 · Cited by 2,060 · see citing works
Cellpose 2.0: how to train your own model
Pachitariu, M., & Stringer, C. (2022) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-022-01663-4 · Cited by 1,381 · see citing works
Transformers in medical imaging: A survey
Shamshad, F., Khan, S., Zamir, S. W., Khan, M. H., Hayat, M., Khan, F. S., & Fu, H. (2023) · Medical Image Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.media.2023.102802 · Cited by 1,412 · see citing works
TrackMate 7: integrating state-of-the-art segmentation algorithms into tracking pipelines
Ershov, D., Phan, M.-S., Pylvänäinen, J. W., Rigaud, S. U., Blanc, L. L., Charles‐Orszag, A., Conway, J. R. W., Laine, R. F., Roy, N. H., Bonazzi, D., et al. (2022) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-022-01507-1 · Cited by 1,219 · see citing works
Greenwald, N. F., Miller, G., Moen, E., Kong, A., Kagel, A., Dougherty, T., Fullaway, C. C., McIntosh, B. J., Leow, K. X., Schwartz, M. S., et al. (2022) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41587-021-01094-0 · Cited by 953 · see citing works
DS-TransUNet: Dual Swin Transformer U-Net for Medical Image Segmentation
Lin, A., Chen, B., Xu, J., Zhang, Z., Lu, G., & Zhang, D. D. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement · doi:10.1109/tim.2022.3178991 · Cited by 905 · see citing works
Datta, R., Heaster, T. M., Sharick, J. T., Gillette, A. A., & Skala, M. C. (2020) · Journal of Biomedical Optics · doi:10.1117/1.jbo.25.7.071203 · Cited by 886 · see citing works
Towards a guideline for evaluation metrics in medical image segmentation
Müller, D., Soto-Rey, I., & Kramer, F. (2022) · BMC Research Notes · doi:10.1186/s13104-022-06096-y · Cited by 668 · see citing works
Pan-cancer computational histopathology reveals mutations, tumor composition and prognosis
Fu, Y., Jung, A. W., Viñas, R., González, S., Vöhringer, H. S., Shmatko, A., Yates, L. R., Jimenez‐Liñan, M., Moore, L., & Gerstung, M. (2020) · Nature Cancer · doi:10.1038/s43018-020-0085-8 · Cited by 636 · see citing works
Spatial omics and multiplexed imaging to explore cancer biology
Lewis, S. M., Asselin-Labat, M.-L., Nguyen, Q. H., Berthelet, J., Tan, X., Wimmer, V. C., Mérino, D., Rogers, K. L., & Naik, S. H. (2021) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-021-01203-6 · Cited by 609 · see citing works
Deep Visual Proteomics defines single-cell identity and heterogeneity
Mund, A., Coscia, F., Kriston, A., Hollandi, R., Kovács, F., Brunner, A.-D., Migh, E., Schweizer, L., Santos, A., Bzorek, M., et al. (2022) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41587-022-01302-5 · Cited by 562 · see citing works
EMCAD: Efficient Multi-Scale Convolutional Attention Decoding for Medical Image Segmentation
Rahman, M. M., Munir, M., & Marculescu, R. (2024) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr52733.2024.01118 · Cited by 568 · see citing works
Artificial intelligence for diagnosis and Gleason grading of prostate cancer: the PANDA challenge
Bulten, W., Kartasalo, K., Chen, P.-H. C., Ström, P., Pinckaers, H., Nagpal, K., Cai, Y., Steiner, D. F., van Boven, H., Vink, R., et al. (2022) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01620-2 · Cited by 559 · see citing works
Transformers in medical image analysis
He, K., Chen, G., Li, Z., Rekik, I., Yin, Z., Wen, J., Gao, Y., Wang, Q., Zhang, J., & Shen, D. G. (2022) · Intelligent Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.imed.2022.07.002 · Cited by 571 · see citing works
Cellpose3: one-click image restoration for improved cellular segmentation
Stringer, C., & Pachitariu, M. (2025) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-025-02595-5 · Cited by 479 · see citing works
DCSAU-Net: A deeper and more compact split-attention U-Net for medical image segmentation
Xu, Q., Ma, Z., He, N., & Duan, W. (2023) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.106626 · Cited by 476 · see citing works
TransAttUnet: Multi-Level Attention-Guided U-Net With Transformer for Medical Image Segmentation
Chen, B., Liu, Y., Zhang, Z., Lu, G., & Kong, A. W. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Emerging Topics in Computational Intelligence · doi:10.1109/tetci.2023.3309626 · Cited by 472 · see citing works
Li, J., Chen, J., Tang, Y., Wang, C., Landman, B. A., & Zhou, S. K. (2023) · Medical Image Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.media.2023.102762 · Cited by 426 · see citing works
Image-based profiling for drug discovery: due for a machine-learning upgrade?
Chandrasekaran, S. N., Ceulemans, H., Boyd, J. D., & Carpenter, A. E. (2020) · Nature Reviews Drug Discovery · doi:10.1038/s41573-020-00117-w · Cited by 387 · see citing works
Self-citationArtificial intelligence for diagnosis and Gleason grading of prostate cancer: the PANDA challenge
Wouter, B., Kimmo, K., Cameron, C. P.-H., Peter, S., Hans, P., Kunal, N., Yuannan, C., Steiner, D. F., van Boven, H., Robert, V., et al. (2022) · UTUPub (University of Turku) · Cited by 375 · see citing works
Jiao, R., Zhang, Y., Ding, L., Xue, B., Zhang, J., Cai, R., & Jin, C. (2023) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.107840 · Cited by 374 · see citing works
LABKIT: Labeling and Segmentation Toolkit for Big Image Data
Arzt, M., Deschamps, J. R., Schmied, C., Pietzsch, T., Schmidt, D., Tomančák, P., Haase, R., & Jug, F. (2022) · Frontiers in Computer Science · doi:10.3389/fcomp.2022.777728 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
Segment Anything for Microscopy
Archit, A., Freckmann, L., Nair, S., Khalid, N., Hilt, P., Rajashekar, V., Freitag, M., Teuber, C., Spitzner, M., Contreras, C. T., et al. (2025) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-024-02580-4 · Cited by 354 · see citing works
MSRF-Net: A Multi-Scale Residual Fusion Network for Biomedical Image Segmentation
Srivastava, A., Jha, D., Chanda, S., Pal, U., Johansen, H., Johansen, D., Riegler, M. A., Ali, S., & Halvorsen, P. (2021) · IEEE Journal of Biomedical and Health Informatics · doi:10.1109/jbhi.2021.3138024 · Cited by 329 · see citing works
Stepwise Feature Fusion: Local Guides Global
Wang, J., Huang, Q., Tang, F., Meng, J., Su, J., & Song, S. (2022) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-16437-8_11 · Cited by 325 · see citing works
LIVECell—A large-scale dataset for label-free live cell segmentation
Edlund, C., Jackson, T. R., Khalid, N., Bevan, N., Dale, T., Dengel, A., Ahmed, S., Trygg, J., & Sjögren, R. (2021) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-021-01249-6 · Cited by 304 · see citing works
Hollandi, R., Szkalisity, A., Toth, T., Tasnadi, E., Molnar, C., Mathe, B., Grexa, I., Molnar, J., Balind, A., Gorbe, M., et al. (2020) · Cell Systems · doi:10.1016/j.cels.2020.04.003 · Cited by 284 · see citing works
Self-citationCellpose-SAM: superhuman generalization for cellular segmentationPreprint
Pachitariu, M., Rariden, M., & Stringer, C. (2025) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2025.04.28.651001 · Cited by 259 · see citing works
FANet: A Feedback Attention Network for Improved Biomedical Image Segmentation
Tomar, N. K., Jha, D., Riegler, M. A., Johansen, H. D., Johansen, D., Rittscher, J., Halvorsen, P., & Ali, S. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems · doi:10.1109/tnnls.2022.3159394 · Cited by 260 · see citing works
Test-time augmentation for deep learning-based cell segmentation on microscopy images
Moshkov, N., Mathe, B., Kertész‐Farkas, A., Hollandi, R., & Horváth, P. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-61808-3 · Cited by 240 · see citing works
DuAT: Dual-Aggregation Transformer Network for Medical Image Segmentation
Tang, F., Xu, Z., Huang, Q., Wang, J., Hou, X., Su, J., & Liu, J. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-981-99-8469-5_27 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
DeepImageJ: A user-friendly environment to run deep learning models in ImageJ
Gómez‐de‐Mariscal, E., García-López-de-Haro, C., Ouyang, W., Donati, L., Lundberg, E. K., Unser, M. A., Muñoz‐Barrutia, A., & Sage, D. (2021) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-021-01262-9 · Cited by 219 · see citing works
Transformers and large language models in healthcare: A review
Nerella, S., Bandyopadhyay, S., Zhang, J., Contreras, M., Siegel, S., Bumin, A., Silva, B., Sena, J., Shickel, B., Bihorac, A., et al. (2024) · Artificial Intelligence in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.artmed.2024.102900 · Cited by 243 · see citing works
A survey on applications of deep learning in microscopy image analysis
Liu, Z., Jin, L., Chen, J., Fang, Q., Ablameyko, S., Yin, Z., & Xu, Y. (2021) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.104523 · Cited by 197 · see citing works
Li, X., Li, Y., Zhou, Y., Wu, J., Zhao, Z., Fan, J., Deng, F., Wu, Z., Xiao, G., He, J., et al. (2022) · Nature Biotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41587-022-01450-8 · Cited by 184 · see citing works
Li, X., Zhang, G., Wu, J., Zhang, Y., Zhao, Z., Lin, X., Qiao, H., Xie, H., Wang, H., Fang, L., et al. (2021) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-021-01225-0 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
X-Net: a dual encoding–decoding method in medical image segmentation
Li, Y., Wang, Z., Li, Y., Zhu, Z., Qi, G., & Liu, Y. (2021) · The Visual Computer · doi:10.1007/s00371-021-02328-7 · Cited by 159 · see citing works
Du, H., Wang, J., Liu, M., Wang, Y., & Meijering, E. H. W. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems · doi:10.1109/tnnls.2022.3204090 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
The multimodality cell segmentation challenge: toward universal solutions
Ma, J., Xie, R., Ayyadhury, S., Ge, C., Gupta, A., Gupta, R., Gu, S., Zhang, Y., Lee, G., Kim, J., et al. (2024) · Nature Methods · doi:10.1038/s41592-024-02233-6 · Cited by 154 · see citing works
Self-citationAdvantages of transformer and its application for medical image segmentation: a survey
Pu, Q., Xi, Z., Yin, S., Zhao, Z., & Zhao, L. (2024) · BioMedical Engineering OnLine · doi:10.1186/s12938-024-01212-4 · Cited by 157 · see citing works
Vision Transformers for Computational Histopathology
Xu, H., Xu, Q., Cong, F., Kang, J., Han, C., Liu, Z., Madabhushi, A., & Lu, C. Y. (2023) · IEEE Reviews in Biomedical Engineering · doi:10.1109/rbme.2023.3297604 · Cited by 146 · see citing works
A bird's-eye view of deep learning in bioimage analysis
Meijering, E. (2020) · Computational and Structural Biotechnology Journal · doi:10.1016/j.csbj.2020.08.003 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Unsupervised content-preserving transformation for optical microscopy
Li, X., Zhang, G., Qiao, H., Bao, F., Deng, Y. C., Wu, J., He, Y., Yun, J., Lin, X., Xie, H., et al. (2021) · Light Science & Applications · doi:10.1038/s41377-021-00484-y · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Vision transformer architecture and applications in digital health: a tutorial and survey
Al-hammuri, K., Gebali, F., Kanan, A., & Chelvan, I. T. (2023) · Visual Computing for Industry, Biomedicine, and Art · doi:10.1186/s42492-023-00140-9 · Cited by 126 · see citing works
Recent progress in transformer-based medical image analysis
Liu, Z., Lv, Q., Yang, Z., Li, Y., Lee, C. H., & Shen, L. (2023) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2023.107268 · Cited by 127 · see citing works
Correlated Multimodal Imaging in Life Sciences: Expanding the Biomedical Horizon
Walter, A., Paul‐Gilloteaux, P., Plochberger, B., Šefc, L., Verkade, P., Mannheim, J. G., Slezak, P., Unterhuber, A., Marchetti‐Deschmann, M., Ogris, M., et al. (2020) · Frontiers in Physics · doi:10.3389/fphy.2020.00047 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Mahbod, A., Schaefer, G., Bancher, B., Löw, C., Dorffner, G., Ecker, R., & Ellinger, I. (2021) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.104349 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Computational pathology: A survey review and the way forward
Hosseini, M. S., Bejnordi, B. E., Trinh, V. Q., Chan, L., Hasan, D., Li, X., Yang, S. C., Kim, T., Zhang, H., Wu, T., et al. (2024) · Journal of Pathology Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.jpi.2023.100357 · Cited by 124 · see citing works
Ma, J., Zhang, Y., Gu, S., Ge, C., Mae, S., Young, A., Zhu, C., Yang, X., Meng, K., Huang, Z., et al. (2024) · The Lancet Digital Health · doi:10.1016/s2589-7500(24)00154-7 · Cited by 145 · see citing works
Kim, Y., & Park, H. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-88334-0 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Lee, H., & Jeong, W. (2020) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-59710-8_2 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Lee, M. Y., Bedia, J. S., Bhate, S. S., Barlow, G. L., Phillips, D. J., Fantl, W. J., Nolan, G. P., & Schürch, C. M. (2022) · BMC Bioinformatics · doi:10.1186/s12859-022-04570-9 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
Image-based cell phenotyping with deep learning
Pratapa, A., Doron, M., & Caicedo, J. C. (2021) · Current Opinion in Chemical Biology · doi:10.1016/j.cbpa.2021.04.001 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
Self-citationAdvances and opportunities in image analysis of bacterial cells and communities
Jeckel, H., & Drescher, K. (2020) · FEMS Microbiology Reviews · doi:10.1093/femsre/fuaa062 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
NuSeT: A deep learning tool for reliably separating and analyzing crowded cells
Yang, L., Ghosh, R. P., Franklin, J. M., Chen, S., You, C., Narayan, R. R., Melcher, M. L., & Liphardt, J. (2020) · PLoS Computational Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008193 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Da, Q., Huang, X., Li, Z., Zuo, Y., Zhang, C., Liu, J., Chen, W., Li, J., Xu, D., Hu, Z., et al. (2022) · Medical Image Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.media.2022.102485 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Scherr, T., Löffler, K., Böhland, M., & Mikut, R. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0243219 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Deep learning in image-based phenotypic drug discovery
Krentzel, D., Shorte, S. L., & Zimmer, C. (2023) · Trends in Cell Biology · doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2022.11.011 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
Object recognition datasets and challenges: A review
Salari, A., Djavadifar, A., Liu, X., & Najjaran, H. (2022) · Neurocomputing · doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2022.01.022 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Wu, H., Wang, Z., Song, Y., Yang, L., & Qin, J. (2022) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr52688.2022.01137 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
CSCA U-Net: A channel and space compound attention CNN for medical image segmentation
Shu, X., Wang, J., Zhang, A., Shi, J., & Wu, X. (2024) · Artificial Intelligence in Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.artmed.2024.102800 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
CPP-Net: Context-Aware Polygon Proposal Network for Nucleus Segmentation
Chen, S., Ding, C., Liu, M., Cheng, J. T., & Tao, D. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Image Processing · doi:10.1109/tip.2023.3237013 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Bringing TrackMate into the era of machine-learning and deep-learningPreprint
Ershov, D., Phan, M.-S., Pylvänäinen, J. W., Rigaud, S. U., Blanc, L. L., Charles‐Orszag, A., Conway, J. R. W., Laine, R. F., Roy, N. H., Bonazzi, D., et al. (2021) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2021.09.03.458852 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
OrganoidTracker: Efficient cell tracking using machine learning and manual error correction
Kok, R. N. U., Hebert, L., Huelsz‐Prince, G., Goos, Y. J., Zheng, X., Bożek, K., Stephens, G. J., Tans, S. J., & van Zon, J. S. (2020) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0240802 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Pan, S., Liu, X., Xie, N., & Chong, Y. (2023) · BMC Bioinformatics · doi:10.1186/s12859-023-05196-1 · Cited by 92 · see citing works
Weakly Supervised Cell Segmentation by Point Annotation
Zhao, T., & Yin, Z. (2020) · IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging · doi:10.1109/tmi.2020.3046292 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
FF-UNet: a U-Shaped Deep Convolutional Neural Network for Multimodal Biomedical Image Segmentation
Iqbal, A., Sharif, M., Khan, M. A., Nisar, W., & Alhaisoni, M. M. (2022) · Cognitive Computation · doi:10.1007/s12559-022-10038-y · Cited by 84 · see citing works
ERDUnet: An Efficient Residual Double-Coding Unet for Medical Image Segmentation
Li, H., Zhai, D., & Xia, Y. (2023) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology · doi:10.1109/tcsvt.2023.3300846 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Calibrating the Dice Loss to Handle Neural Network Overconfidence for Biomedical Image Segmentation
Yeung, M., Rundo, L., Nan, Y., Sala, E., Schönlieb, C., & Yang, G. (2022) · Journal of Imaging Informatics in Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10278-022-00735-3 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
Keras R-CNN: library for cell detection in biological images using deep neural networks
Hung, J., Goodman, A., Ravel, D., Lopes, S. C. P., Rangel, G. W., Nery, O. A., Malleret, B., Nosten, F. H., Lacerda, M., Ferreira, M. U., et al. (2020) · BMC Bioinformatics · doi:10.1186/s12859-020-03635-x · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Self-citationTran, S.-T., Cheng, C.-H., Nguyen, T.-T., Le, M.-H., & Liu, D. (2021) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare9010054 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Image-based pooled whole-genome CRISPRi screening for subcellular phenotypes
Kanfer, G., Sarraf, S. A., Maman, Y., Baldwin, H. A., Domínguez‐Martín, E., Johnson, K. R., Ward, M. E., Kampmann, M., Lippincott‐Schwartz, J., & Youle, R. J. (2020) · The Journal of Cell Biology · doi:10.1083/jcb.202006180 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
BioImage Model Zoo: A Community-Driven Resource for Accessible Deep Learning in BioImage AnalysisPreprint
Ouyang, W., Beuttenmueller, F., Gómez‐de‐Mariscal, E., Pape, C., Burke, T., García-López-de-Haro, C., Russell, C., Sans, L. M. M., de-la-Torre-Gutiérrez, C., Schmidt, D., et al. (2022) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2022.06.07.495102 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
Nuclei segmentation using attention aware and adversarial networks
Göçeri, E. (2024) · Neurocomputing · doi:10.1016/j.neucom.2024.127445 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
A survey on recent trends in deep learning for nucleus segmentation from histopathology images
Basu, A., Senapati, P., Deb, M., Rai, R., & Dhal, K. G. (2023) · Evolving Systems · doi:10.1007/s12530-023-09491-3 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Medical image segmentation method based on multi-feature interaction and fusion over cloud computing
He, X., Qi, G., Zhu, Z., Li, Y., Cong, B., & Bai, L. (2023) · Simulation Modelling Practice and Theory · doi:10.1016/j.simpat.2023.102769 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Evaluation of Deep Learning Architectures for Complex Immunofluorescence Nuclear Image Segmentation
Kromp, F., Fischer, L., Bozsaky, E., Ambros, I. M., Dörr, W., Beiske, K., Ambros, P. F., Hanbury, A., & Taschner‐Mandl, S. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging · doi:10.1109/tmi.2021.3069558 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Lagree, A., Mohebpour, M., Meti, N., Saednia, K., Lu, F.-I., Slodkowska, E., Gandhi, S., Rakovitch, E., Shenfield, A., Sadeghi-Naini, A., et al. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-87496-1 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Nucleus segmentation: towards automated solutions
Hollandi, R., Moshkov, N., Paavolainen, L., Tasnádi, E., Piccinini, F., & Horváth, P. (2022) · Trends in Cell Biology · doi:10.1016/j.tcb.2021.12.004 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
SCRINSHOT enables spatial mapping of cell states in tissue sections with single-cell resolution
Sountoulidis, A., Liontos, A., Nguyen, H. P., Firsova, A. B., Fysikopoulos, A., Qian, X., Seeger, W., Sundström, E., Nilsson, M. F., & Samakovlis, C. (2020) · PLoS Biology · doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000675 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
TSFD-Net: Tissue specific feature distillation network for nuclei segmentation and classification
Ilyas, T., Mannan, Z. I., Khan, A., Azam, S., Kim, H., & Boer, F. D. (2022) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2022.02.020 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Semantic segmentation in medical images through transfused convolution and transformer networks
Dhamija, T., Gupta, A., Gupta, S., Anjum, Katarya, R., & Singh, G. K. (2022) · Applied Intelligence · doi:10.1007/s10489-022-03642-w · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Qian, L., Wen, C., Li, Y., Hu, Z., Zhou, X. Y., Xia, X., & Kim, S.-H. (2023) · Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine · doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2023.107885 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Uncertainty-Aware Hierarchical Aggregation Network for Medical Image Segmentation
Zhou, T., Zhou, Y., Li, G., Chen, G., & Shen, J. (2024) · IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems for Video Technology · doi:10.1109/tcsvt.2024.3370685 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Open-source deep-learning software for bioimage segmentation
Lucas, A. M., Ryder, P. V., Li, B., Cimini, B. A., Eliceiri, K. W., & Carpenter, A. E. (2021) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e20-10-0660 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Self-citationComputational analyses of mechanism of action (MoA): data, methods and integration
Trapotsi, M., Hosseini-Gerami, L., & Bender, A. (2021) · RSC Chemical Biology · doi:10.1039/d1cb00069a · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Lightweight medical image segmentation network with multi-scale feature-guided fusion
Zhu, Z., Yu, K., Qi, G., Cong, B., Li, Y., Li, Z., & Gao, X. (2024) · Computers in Biology and Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.compbiomed.2024.109204 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
Deep learning for bioimage analysis in developmental biology
Hallou, A., Yevick, H. G., Dumitrascu, B., & Uhlmann, V. (2021) · Development · doi:10.1242/dev.199616 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Recent advances of Transformers in medical image analysis: A comprehensive review
Xia, K., & Wang, J. (2023) · MedComm – Future Medicine · doi:10.1002/mef2.38 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Developing image analysis methods for digital pathology
Bankhead, P. (2022) · The Journal of Pathology · doi:10.1002/path.5921 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Evolution and impact of high content imaging.
Way, G. P., Sailem, H., Shave, S., Kasprowicz, R., & Carragher, N. O. (2023) · SLAS Discovery · doi:10.1016/j.slasd.2023.08.009 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Medical Image Segmentation: A Review of Modern Architectures
Salpea, N., Tzouveli, P. K., & Kollias, D. (2023) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-25082-8_47 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Kim, S., Cho, Y.-S., Kim, Y., Park, J., Yoo, S., Gwak, J., Kim, Y., Gwon, Y., Kam, T., & Jung, Y. (2023) · Autophagy · doi:10.1080/15548627.2023.2181614 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
CellSAM: A Foundation Model for Cell SegmentationPreprint
Israel, U., Marks, M., Dilip, R., Li, Q., Yu, C., Laubscher, E., Iqbal, A., Pradhan, E., Ates, A., Abt, M., et al. (2023) · bioRxiv (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory) · doi:10.1101/2023.11.17.567630 · Cited by 64 · see citing works
Mohammad‐Rahimi, H., Sohrabniya, F., Ourang, S. A., Dianat, O., Aminoshariae, A., Nagendrababu, V., Dummer, P. M. H., Duncan, H. F., & Nosrat, A. (2024) · International Endodontic Journal · doi:10.1111/iej.14128 · Cited by 70 · see citing works
Splinedist: Automated Cell Segmentation With Spline Curves
Mandal, S., & Uhlmann, V. (2021) · IEEE International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging (ISBI) · doi:10.1109/isbi48211.2021.9433928 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Domain Generalization in Computational Pathology: Survey and Guidelines
Jahanifar, M., Raza, M., Xu, K., Vuong, T. T. L., Jewsbury, R., Shephard, A., Tajeddin, N. Z., Kwak, J. T., Raza, S. E. A., Minhas, F., et al. (2025) · ACM Computing Surveys · doi:10.1145/3724391 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
- Authors
- Caicedo, J. C., Goodman, A., Karhohs, K. W., Cimini, B. A., Ackerman, J., Haghighi, M., Heng, C., Becker, T., Doan, M., McQuin, C., Rohban, M., Singh, S., & Carpenter, A. E.
- Affiliations
- Broad Institute (US)
- Corresponding author
- Carpenter, Anne E.
- ORCID
- Venue
- Nature Methods
- Published
- 2019-10-21
- Volume
- 16
- Issue
- 12
- Pages
- 1247-1253
- ISSN
- 1548-7091 (ISSN-L)
- 1548-7105
- PMC
- PMC6919559
- OpenAlex
- W2980998394
- Cited by
- 809
- References
- 49
- Citations by year
- 2026: 86 · 2025: 142 · 2024: 150 · 2023: 144 · 2022: 124 · 2021: 114 · 2020: 44 · 2019: 4
- FWCI
- 34.63
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Update notices
- correction (2020-01-22)
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Nature Methods (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion, cc-by)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- Eli Lilly and Company
- Nvidia
- Broad Institute
- National Institutes of Health
- National Institute of General Medical Sciences (R35GM122547)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology › Biophysics › Cell Image Analysis Techniques
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Digital Imaging for Blood Diseases
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition › Advanced Neural Network Applications
- Keywords
- nuclei segmentation, bioimage analysis, deep learning, microscopy image analysis, automated image analysis
- MeSH terms
- Data Science, Cell Nucleus, Humans, Image Processing, Computer-Assisted, Microscopy, Fluorescence
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review