The DOI matches its Crossref record; 35 of the 35 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; none of the 33 sources its claims cite is checked for support yet.
Stochastic memristive devices for computing and neuromorphic applications
Open accessAbstract
Nanoscale resistive switching devices (memristive devices or memristors) have been studied for a number of applications ranging from non-volatile memory, logic to neuromorphic systems. However a major challenge is to address the potentially large variations in space and time in these nanoscale devices. Here we show that in metal-filament based memristive devices the switching can be fully stochastic. While individual switching events are random, the distribution and probability of switching can be well predicted and controlled. Rather than trying to force high switching probabilities using excess voltage or time, the inherent stochastic nature of resistive switching allows these binary devices to be used as building blocks for novel error-tolerant computing schemes such as stochastic computing and provides the needed "analog" feature for neuromorphic applications. To verify such potential, we demonstrated memristor-based stochastic bitstreams in both time and space domains, and show that an array of binary memristors can act as a multi-level "analog" device for neuromorphic applications.
Overview
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Written from the paper’s full text.
TL;DR
Memristive devices based on Ag filament formation in amorphous silicon show fully stochastic resistive switching, but the switching probability can be predicted and controlled by voltage and pulse width. This enables random bitstreams in time and space and allows a 4-device array to act as a multi-bit synapse for stochastic computing and neuromorphic applications.
Key findings
- Wait times before switching are broadly distributed and fit a Poisson distribution with one fitting parameter τ. For applied voltages of 2.5 V, 3.5 V, and 4.5 V, τ = 340 ms, 4.7 ms, and 0.38 ms, respectively; a 2 V increase in voltage drops the characteristic time by almost three orders of magnitude.
- Switching probability is cumulative and predictable: a 2.5 V/300 ms pulse switched the device 20 times out of 50 trials (bias ratio p = 0.4), while a 2.5 V/1000 ms pulse switched it 38 times out of 50 (p = 0.76), closely matching Eq. (2).
- Random bitstreams were generated in the time domain, and identical pulses applied to different devices produced 20-bit random bitstreams with similar bias ratios. A 4-device array programmed in parallel produced 4-bit-wide random bitstreams and, used as a whole, represents a 2-bit weight synapse; the authors state this is the first experimental demonstration of such a concept.
- Discrete short pulses are cumulative regardless of gap: with 2.5 V, 100 ms pulses, almost identical τ values were obtained for gaps of 10 ms and 500 ms, and the number of pulses needed to switch followed a Poisson distribution.
Methods
- Two-terminal crossbar devices were fabricated with a 60 nm boron-doped polysilicon bottom electrode, a 35 nm amorphous silicon insulating layer, and a silver top electrode, using electron beam lithography, PECVD, liftoff, and RIE.
- Electrical measurements used a National Instruments USB-6259 BNC data acquisition system with a DL 1211 current preamplifier and MATLAB code; parallel testing used analog switches (ADG1412) and an Atmega32u4 microcontroller.
- Switching statistics were measured by resetting devices to the OFF state, applying constant voltages (2.5, 3.5, 4.5 V) and repeating 100 times per bias, or applying fixed pulses (e.g., 2.5 V/300 ms and 2.5 V/1000 ms for 50 attempts); array experiments used a single 2.75 V, 1000 ms pulse for parallel programming and 2 V, 100 ms pulses for individual readout.
Limitations
- The paper states this is a proof-of-concept demonstration; large-scale implementation must address spatial variations, power, speed, endurance, and reliability, and logic applications require very high endurance with switching probability that does not degrade over time and is uniform among devices.
- The paper states that efficient peripheral circuit design to account for endurance limits under low-voltage operation and degradation of switching probability with time remains for future studies.
- The text makes evident that experiments were limited to single devices and a 4-device array, with small trial counts (50 or 100), and did not demonstrate large-scale arrays or long-term reliability.
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Claims the paper makes
30 Own result · 17 Not checked yet · 15 Own interpretation · 8 No basis given · 3 Sources not found · 2 Own method
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The Poisson distribution of the wait time, with the standard deviation equaling the mean, further verifies that the switching is random and stochastic in nature.”
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“However, careful examination of the switching effects reveals that significant randomness can exist, even in the same device.”
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“The wait time before switching shows apparent randomness.”
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In the paper
“While individual switching events are random”
- Also stated in: § Index Terms -Resistive memory, memristor, bitstreams, stochastic, neuromorphic computing · p. 3 · plain
“the individual switching events occur randomly in nature.”
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- Also stated in: § Index Terms -Resistive memory, memristor, bitstreams, stochastic, neuromorphic computing · p. 3 · plain
In the paper
“Binary resistive switching can be reliably observed in such devices, as shown in the inset to Fig. 1a and as discussed earlier (15).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [15] 15. Jo, S. H.; Lu, W. CMOS compatible nanoscale nonvolatile resistance switching memory. Nano letters 2008, 8 (2), 392-397. source
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“even for a given voltage applied to the same device, the wait time is not fixed but rather shows a large distribution.”
- Also stated in: § Index Terms -Resistive memory, memristor, bitstreams, stochastic, neuromorphic computing · p. 11 · plain
“Even for a fixed voltage on the same device, the wait time is not fixed and is random and broadly distributed.”
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In the paper
“we demonstrated memristor-based stochastic bitstreams in both time and space domains”
- Also stated in: § Index Terms -Resistive memory, memristor, bitstreams, stochastic, neuromorphic computing · p. 11 · plain
“The memristive devices have been used to generate random bitstreams with predicable bias ratios in time and space domains.”
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In the paper
“Here we show that in metalfilament based memristive devices the switching can be fully stochastic.”
- Also stated in: § Index Terms -Resistive memory, memristor, bitstreams, stochastic, neuromorphic computing · p. 11 · plain
“we show binary memristive devices can exhibit native stochastic nature of resistive switching.”
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- Also stated in: § Index Terms -Resistive memory, memristor, bitstreams, stochastic, neuromorphic computing · p. 11 · plain
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In the paper
“show that an array of binary memristors can act as a multi-level 'analog' device for neuromorphic applications.”
- Also stated in: § Index Terms -Resistive memory, memristor, bitstreams, stochastic, neuromorphic computing · p. 11 · plain
“The array of binary memristive devices can also act as a multi-bit synapse in neuromorphic applications.”
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“With an increase in 2 V in the applied voltage, the characteristic time drops sharply by almost three orders of magnitude (Fig. 1d).”
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“Thus, here we essentially obtained a stream of bits (a bitstream) which is fifty bits long in time and having 20 1's randomly distributed in the bitstream (Fig. 2e), corresponding to a bias ratio p = 0.4.”
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“For an applied voltage of 2.5 V, the prediction based on (2) is shown in Fig. 2a as the solid line. The switching probabilities can also be obtained by calculating the cumulative probability distribution function from data in Fig. 1a, shown as the squares in Fig. 2a. Again good agreements can be obtained, in agreement with the model.”
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“For example, the bias ratio changes to p = 0.76 if the pulse width is increased to 1000 ms (Fig. 2f).”
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“Bits produced in different physical locations (cells) were generated by programming an array of 4 devices (A, B, C, D) with a single pulse in parallel as shown in Fig. 5a (Inset).”
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“As shown in Fig. 5, random combinations can be obtained from the array in different tests, even though an identical programming pulse was applied.”
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“The bias ratio in this random bitstream can be controlled by the pulse width and voltage used.”
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“The time constant τ obtained by counting the number of discrete pulses agrees well with the time constant obtained from applying continuous voltage biases (Fig. 1a).”
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“Bitstreams generated with 2.5 V/300 ms (Fig. 2e) and 2.5 V/1000 ms (Fig. 2f) clearly represent two distinct values, namely, 0.4 and 0.76 respectively.”
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“Results for 2.5 V/1000 ms pulses are shown in Fig 2d; the device switches thirty eight times compared to twenty times in Fig. 2c.”
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“Obviously, longer pulses result in a higher probability of the device switching during the programming pulse, as predicted by Eq. (2).”
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“In this approach, the bitstreams representing an analog number x is achieved by a memristive device programmed with a predetermined voltage and pulse width to yield random 1s in time domain with a known bias ratio.”
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“The significance of Eq. (2) is that we can now predict the switching probability at a given programming voltage and pulse width, even though each switching event is random.”
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“Again if we digitize the currents by setting 0.1 µ A as the threshold, 4 20-bit random bitstreams with similar bias ratios were obtained in the 4 different devices.”
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“Here we show that stochastic bitstreams in space can also be obtained by using memristive devices in parallel in an array form.”
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“Additionally, the probability of switching is related only to the voltage amplitude and the total time the voltage is applied, i.e. the switching probability is cumulative.”
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In the paper
“but the results can be generalized to other cation (5) or anion (e.g. oxygen vacancy in oxides) (6) based memristive systems as well.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] 5. Valov, I.; Waser, R.; Jameson, J. R.; Kozicki, M. N. Electrochemical metallization memoriesfundamentals, applications, prospects. Nanotechnology 2011, 22 (25), 254003. source
- Not checked yetcites [6] 6. Yang, J. J.; Strukov, D. B.; Stewart, D. R. Memristive devices for computing. Nature nanotechnology 2012, 8 (1), 13-24. source
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“Typically one of the processes is rate-liming so switching is associated with thermal activation over a dominant energy barrier and is thus probabilistic in nature, if only a dominant filament is involved (14).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] 14. Jo, S. H.; Kim, K.-H.; Lu, W. Programmable resistance switching in nanoscale two-terminal devices. Nano letters 2009, 9 (1), 496-500. source
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“Previous studies on such devices (4,14,17) have shown that the resistance switching is associated with the formation and rupture of a single dominant, nanoscale conducting filament.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] 4. Waser, R.; Aono, M. Nanoionics-based resistive switching memories. Nature materials 2007, 6 (11), 833-840. source
- Not checked yetcites [14] 14. Jo, S. H.; Kim, K.-H.; Lu, W. Programmable resistance switching in nanoscale two-terminal devices. Nano letters 2009, 9 (1), 496-500. source
- Not checked yetcites [17] 17. Sheridan, P.; Kim, K.-H.; Gaba, S.; Chang, T.; Chen, L.; Lu, W. Device and SPICE modeling of RRAM devices. Nanoscale 2011, 3 (9), 3833-3840. source
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In the paper
“provide a needed 'analog' feature in neuromorphic applications.”
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“Mathematically, if only one dominant energy barrier limits the switching process, the wait time is expected to follow a Poisson distribution”
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“the inherent stochastic nature of resistive switching allows these binary devices to be used as building blocks for novel error-tolerant computing schemes such as stochastic computing”
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“The spatial variations were minimized here by carefully controlling the fabrication (line edge roughness of the electrodes, thickness and microstructure of the amorphous silicon matrix, etc.), the initial 'forming' cycle and the erase process.”
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“Further, the time variable may be discretized such that the probability of switching can in turn be written as a function of the number of (short) pulses of a fixed voltage, regardless of the gap between the pulses.”
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“This provides an analog component (e.g. the cumulative time during which the programming voltage is applied) in these binary devices if they are used as synapses in neuromorphic systems (25).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [25] 25. Likharev, K.; Mayr, A.; Muckra, I.; T. CrossNets: High-Performance Neuromorphic Architectures for CMOL Circuits. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2003, 1006 (1), 146-163. source
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“Besides being used as bitstreams in space in stochastic computing, the 4-device array, when used as a whole as a single synapse, represents a 2-bit weight synapse.”
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“The randomness is an essential requirement for applications such as bitstream based stochastic computing, where correlation between the locations of 1s can lead to systematic computing errors (24).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [24] 24. Alaghi, A.; Hayes, J. P. Survey of Stochastic Computing. ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems (TECS) to appear .
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
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In the paper
“Another advantage of stochastic computing is that relatively simple circuits can be used for tasks which otherwise are computationally more intensive in binary radix representation.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] 28. Qian, W.; Backes, J.; Riedel, M. D. The synthesis of stochastic circuits for nanoscale computation. International Journal of Nanotechnology and Molecular Computation (IJNMC) 2009, 1 (4), 39-57.
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“The reduction of bias voltage in turn slows the growth of additional filaments and results in a single, dominant filament.”
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“For example, the multiplication of two numbers x and y can be achieved by simply performing a bit-wise AND operation on the two bitstreams representing x and y (28).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] 28. Qian, W.; Backes, J.; Riedel, M. D. The synthesis of stochastic circuits for nanoscale computation. International Journal of Nanotechnology and Molecular Computation (IJNMC) 2009, 1 (4), 39-57.
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“This stochastic representation has an inherent advantage over the binary radix representation when it comes to noise tolerance, since a bit flip only causes an error of 1/ n where n is the length of the bitstream regardless of where the error occurs, while in the binary radix representation a bit flip can cause an error of 2 n -1 if it occurs at the most significant bit (28).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [28] 28. Qian, W.; Backes, J.; Riedel, M. D. The synthesis of stochastic circuits for nanoscale computation. International Journal of Nanotechnology and Molecular Computation (IJNMC) 2009, 1 (4), 39-57.
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“We argue this ability to predict the probability of switching in stochastic memristive switching events can be used for novel computing schemes.”
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“During programming, after the 1 st filament bridges the electrodes the voltage drop across the device is subsequently reduced, an effect caused by the voltage divider effect with the external circuit components (i.e. series resistance) (14,17).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] 14. Jo, S. H.; Kim, K.-H.; Lu, W. Programmable resistance switching in nanoscale two-terminal devices. Nano letters 2009, 9 (1), 496-500. source
- Not checked yetcites [17] 17. Sheridan, P.; Kim, K.-H.; Gaba, S.; Chang, T.; Chen, L.; Lu, W. Device and SPICE modeling of RRAM devices. Nanoscale 2011, 3 (9), 3833-3840. source
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In the paper
“Instead of trying to force these non-deterministic devices to function deterministically, we show that useful functions may be obtained by taking advantage of this inherent stochastic switching nature at low voltages and shorter times.”
boostedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- It may state two separate claims as one. 25
- Probably not a substantial claim. 14
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As can be seen from Fig. 1b and Fig. 1c, the switching time distribution at different programming voltages preserves the Poisson nature but the characteristic wait time decreases significantly as the bias voltage is increased.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Fig. 1 shows that excellent fit of the wait times to the Poisson distribution in Eq. (1) can be obtained with just one fitting parameter ( τ ), in agreement of the hypothesis of thermodynamic activation over a dominant energy barrier during filament formation in these devices.”
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“the distribution and probability of switching can be well predicted and controlled.”
- Also stated in: § Index Terms -Resistive memory, memristor, bitstreams, stochastic, neuromorphic computing · p. 11 · plain
“the probability of switching can be predicted and controlled by the applied voltage and the pulse width used to program the device.”
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- Also stated in: § Index Terms -Resistive memory, memristor, bitstreams, stochastic, neuromorphic computing · p. 11 · plain
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In the paper
“It can be seen from DC sweeps that the devices exhibit standard switching hysteresis with clearly defined ON and OFF states and an apparent threshold voltage of ca. 5 V (Fig. 1a inset).”
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Since the characteristic wait time τ is strongly voltage dependent, the average wait time can be reduced drastically at higher voltages too.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“As expected, the distribution for the number of pulses needed to switch the device also follows a Poisson distribution and can be fitted with just one fitting parameter τ .”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“It is also important to note here we can control only the bias ratio of the bit-stream (i.e. the overall number of 1s), while the locations of individual 1's are random.”
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In the paper
“Indeed, if the 4 devices share the same series resistor, we indeed observed only one device in the ON state after each programming pulse, i.e. the device array simply behaves as a single, larger device.”
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In Fig. 4 we see that each bit in the bitstream was generated at a different time instance. In other words, the random bits were produced in serial fashion one after the other. This is the commonly termed as 'stochastic bitstream in time'.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“However, if each device has its own local, series resistor, as shown in Fig. 5a inset, the completion of the dominant filament in one device does not cause the decrease of voltage seen by other devices thus multiple devices can be switched.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“To modulate this bias ratio or, in other words, to generate another number y , all we need to do is to change the programming time or the programming voltage.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“Finally, we would like to point out that this study presents a proof-of-concept demonstration in stochastic and neuromorphic computing approaches by taking advantage of the inherent temporal variations in resistive devices.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The device switches to the ON state twenty times out of the fifty trials or attempts. This number closely matches that predicted from the theoretical curve given by Eq. (2).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“In other words, each time the array of 4 devices is programmed, we get a 4-bit wide random bitstream from the array, and exactly which device will switch cannot be predicted at the start of the programming cycle.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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In the paper
“The concept of using an array of memristive devices to represent a multi-bit synapse was proposed a few years ago (25), and to our knowledge this is the first experimental demonstration of such a concept.”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [25] 25. Likharev, K.; Mayr, A.; Muckra, I.; T. CrossNets: High-Performance Neuromorphic Architectures for CMOL Circuits. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2003, 1006 (1), 146-163.
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Filament formation involves oxidation, ion transport and reduction processes, all of which are thermodynamically driven (5,18) and require overcoming specific activation energies.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] 5. Valov, I.; Waser, R.; Jameson, J. R.; Kozicki, M. N. Electrochemical metallization memoriesfundamentals, applications, prospects. Nanotechnology 2011, 22 (25), 254003. source
- Not checked yetcites [18] 18. Lu, W.; Jeong, D. S.; Kozicki, M.; Waser, R. Electrochemical metallization cells-blending nanoionics into nanoelectronics? MRS bulletin 2012, 37 (02), 124-130. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As a result, even for the same filament in the same device, the wait time will be broadly distributed and in principle can only be predicted in terms of statistics while the individual switching events occur randomly in nature.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“The change from OFF to ON state is explained by the formation of a dominating Ag filament (15,16).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [15] 15. Jo, S. H.; Lu, W. CMOS compatible nanoscale nonvolatile resistance switching memory. Nano letters 2008, 8 (2), 392-397. source
- Not checked yetcites [16] 16. Yang, Y.; Gao, P.; Gaba, S.; Chang, T.; Pan, X.; Lu, W. Observation of conducting filament growth in nanoscale resistive memories. Nature Communications 2012, 3, 732. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
In the paper
“Thus by increasing the programming voltage, τ can be reduced significantly down to the nanosecond regime (14) so switching with high success rate can be achieved.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [14] 14. Jo, S. H.; Kim, K.-H.; Lu, W. Programmable resistance switching in nanoscale two-terminal devices. Nano letters 2009, 9 (1), 496-500. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Since stochastic operations require lower voltages than conventional binary switching it is expected that even better endurance can be obtained using the proposed approach.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. The paper may give no reason why it holds.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For more efficient computing, bitstreams in space domain, i.e. bits generated in parallel or 'stochastic bitstreams in space' are also required, which leads to parallel processing of the bitstreams.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper may give no reason why it holds. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“SNGs account for the majority of the resource usage in stochastic computing, with a cost as high as 80% of the entire system (24).”
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites [24] 24. Alaghi, A.; Hayes, J. P. Survey of Stochastic Computing. ACM Transactions on Embedded Computing Systems (TECS) to appear .
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Recent studies have already shown that similar devices can be very reliable, robust and switch within nanoseconds (31,32,33).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [31] 31. Lee, M.-J.; Lee, C. B.; Lee D.; Lee, S. R.; Chang M.; Hur J. H., Kim Y.-B.; Kim, C- .J.; Seo, D. H.; Seo, S.; Chung, U.-I.; Yoo I.-K. & Kim K. A fast, high-endurance and scalable non-volatile memory device made from asymmetric Ta2O 5x /TaO 2x bilayer structures. Nature Materials, 2011 , 10, 625-630.
- Not checked yetcites [32] 32. Yang, J.-J.; Zhang, M.-X.; Strachan, J. P.; Miao, F.; Pickett, M.D.; Kelley, R. D.; Mederos-Ribeiro G and Williams, R. S. High switchign endurance in TaOx memristive devices. Appl Phys. Lett. 2010 , 97, 232102 .
- Not checked yetcites [33]
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In this experiment, after each programming pulse the device was reset to the same original OFF state so each programming pulse starts with the same initial condition.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, using excessively high voltage and excessively long pulses can result in an increased power envelope and lead to unnecessary device degradation.”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Binary synapses are easier to fabricate, more robust and offer larger dynamic range (4,5).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [4] 4. Waser, R.; Aono, M. Nanoionics-based resistive switching memories. Nature materials 2007, 6 (11), 833-840. source
- Not checked yetcites [5] 5. Valov, I.; Waser, R.; Jameson, J. R.; Kozicki, M. N. Electrochemical metallization memoriesfundamentals, applications, prospects. Nanotechnology 2011, 22 (25), 254003. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Stochastic computing was first proposed in the 1960s (26,27) but like many concepts proposed ahead of their time it never become mainstream due to the exponential growth of digital computers.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [26] 26. Gaines, B. Stochastic computing systems. Advances in Information Systems Science 1969, 2 (2), 37172. source
- Not checked yetcites [27] 27. Poppelbaum, W.; Afuso, C.; Esch, J. Stochastic computing elements and systems. Proceedings of the November 14-16, 1967, fall joint computer conference , 1967; pp 635-644. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Rather than trying to eliminate the non-determinism to use these devices in deterministic memory applications, the ability to produce random bitstreams and multi-bit synapses using binary memristive devices based on the native stochastic switching principle may potentially lead to novel non von-Neumann, alternative computing paradigms.”
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“It is possible to achieve multi-bit in binary memristive devices by controlling the programming current (5), however, precise current control in a large network is extremely challenging (30).”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [5] 5. Valov, I.; Waser, R.; Jameson, J. R.; Kozicki, M. N. Electrochemical metallization memoriesfundamentals, applications, prospects. Nanotechnology 2011, 22 (25), 254003. source
- Not checked yetcites [30] 30. Kim, K.-H.; Gaba, S.; Wheeler, D.; Cruz-Albrecht, J. M.; Hussain, T.; Srinivasa, N.; Lu, W. A functional hybrid memristor crossbar-array/CMOS system for data storage and neuromorphic applications. Nano letters 2011, 12 (1), 389-395. source
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“First, we note that the switching probability can be calculated by integrating the Poisson distribution Eq. (1), which leads to”
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The ability to generate random bitstreams using memristive devices can represent an intriguing option for efficient computation of data intensive problems such as image processing using stochastic approaches.”
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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Probably not a substantial claim.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“In particular, in these devices the filament characteristics can be controlled during programming by external circuit parameters such as series-resistance (29) and programming pulse height/width (14,17) so similar switching characteristics can be obtained in different devices.”
What the sources say
- Not checked yetcites [29] 29. Gaba, S.; Choi, S.; Sheridan, P.; Chang, T.; Yang, Y.; Lu, W. Improvement of RRAM Device Performance Through On-Chip Resistors. MRS Proceedings , 2012. source
- Not checked yetcites [14] 14. Jo, S. H.; Kim, K.-H.; Lu, W. Programmable resistance switching in nanoscale two-terminal devices. Nano letters 2009, 9 (1), 496-500. source
- Not checked yetcites [17] 17. Sheridan, P.; Kim, K.-H.; Gaba, S.; Chang, T.; Chen, L.; Lu, W. Device and SPICE modeling of RRAM devices. Nanoscale 2011, 3 (9), 3833-3840. source
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
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It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
For stochastic computing multiplication via a bit-wise AND operation, the input bitstreams x and y are independent and completely uncorrelated.
“This operation assumes that x and y are independent bitstreams that are completely uncorrelated.”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“On the other hand, this natural stochasticity can be valuable for hardware security applications.”
From A novel true random number generator based on a stochastic diffusive memristor (2017) · cites this paper as [26]
Citations
Cites
Strukov, D. B., Snider, G. S., Stewart, D. R., & Williams, R. S. (2008) · Nature · doi:10.1038/nature06932 · Cited by 11,828 · cited 1×
“Devices based on resistive switching (memristive devices or memristors (2-6) have been identified as a major contender in applications ranging from nonvolatile memory storage, logic, to neuromorphic systems due to their scalability (7), low power operation (8), and large connectivity offered in a crossbar structure (9…”
BackgroundMemristor—The Missing Circuit Element
Chua, L. (1971) · IEEE Transactions on Circuit Theory · doi:10.1109/tct.1971.1083337 · Cited by 10,268 · cited 3×
“(2) is that we can now predict the switching probability at a given programming voltage and pulse width, even though each switching event is random.”
BackgroundNanoionics-based resistive switching memories
Waser, R., & Aono, M. (2007) · Nature Materials · doi:10.1038/nmat2023 · Cited by 4,923 · cited 3×
“Binary synapses are easier to fabricate, more robust and offer larger dynamic range (4,5).”
BackgroundMemristive devices for computing
Yang, J. J., Strukov, D. B., & Stewart, D. R. (2013) · Nature Nanotechnology · doi:10.1038/nnano.2012.240 · Cited by 3,885 · cited 2×
“oxygen vacancy in oxides) (6) based memristive systems as well.”
BackgroundLee, M.-J., Lee, C. B., Lee, D., Lee, S. R., Chang, M., Hur, J. H., Kim, Y.-B., Kim, C.-J., Seo, D. H., Seo, S., et al. (2011) · Nature Materials · doi:10.1038/nmat3070 · Cited by 2,228
Observation of conducting filament growth in nanoscale resistive memories
Yang, Y., Gao, P., Gaba, S., Chang, T., Pan, X., & Lu, W. (2012) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/ncomms1737 · Cited by 1,208 · cited 1×
“The change from OFF to ON state is explained by the formation of a dominating Ag filament (15,16).”
BackgroundSelf-citationA scalable neuristor built with Mott memristors
Pickett, M. D., Medeiros‐Ribeiro, G., & Williams, R. S. (2012) · Nature Materials · doi:10.1038/nmat3510 · Cited by 1,046 · cited 1×
“Active circuits based on memristors have also been demonstrated recently (10,11).”
BackgroundKim, K.-H., Gaba, S., Wheeler, D., Cruz-Albrecht, J. M., Hussain, T., Srinivasa, N., & Lu, W. (2012) · Nano Letters · doi:10.1021/nl203687n · Cited by 924 · cited 1×
“It is possible to achieve multi-bit in binary memristive devices by controlling the programming current (5), however, precise current control in a large network is extremely challenging (30).”
BackgroundSelf-citationElectrochemical metallization memories—fundamentals, applications, prospects
Valov, I., Waser, R., Jameson, J. R., & Kozicki, M. N. (2011) · Nanotechnology · doi:10.1088/0957-4484/22/25/254003 · Cited by 921 · cited 6×
“Devices based on resistive switching (memristive devices or memristors (2-6) have been identified as a major contender in applications ranging from nonvolatile memory storage, logic, to neuromorphic systems due to their scalability (7), low power operation (8), and large connectivity offered in a crossbar structure (9…”
BackgroundInfluentialGaines, B. R. (1969) · Advances in Information Systems Science · doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-5841-9_2 · Cited by 745 · cited 1×
“Stochastic computing was first proposed in the 1960s (26,27) but like many concepts proposed ahead of their time it never become mainstream due to the exponential growth of digital computers.”
Background
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Memory devices and applications for in-memory computing
Sebastian, A., Le Gallo, M., Khaddam-Aljameh, R., & Eleftheriou, E. (2020) · Nature Nanotechnology · doi:10.1038/s41565-020-0655-z · Cited by 2,289
In-memory computing with resistive switching devices
Ielmini, D., & Wong, H.-S. P. (2018) · Nature Electronics · doi:10.1038/s41928-018-0092-2 · Cited by 2,298
Pan, F., Gao, S., Chen, C., Song, C., & Zeng, F. (2014) · Materials Science and Engineering R Reports · doi:10.1016/j.mser.2014.06.002 · Cited by 1,412
Stochastic phase-change neurons
Tůma, T., Pantazi, A., Gallo, M. L., Sebastian, A., & Eleftheriou, E. S. (2016) · Nature Nanotechnology · doi:10.1038/nnano.2016.70 · Cited by 1,107
An artificial nociceptor based on a diffusive memristor
Yoon, J. H., Wang, Z., Kim, K. M., Wu, H., Ravichandran, V., Xia, Q., Hwang, C. S., & Yang, J. J. (2018) · Nature Communications · doi:10.1038/s41467-017-02572-3 · Cited by 531
Metadata
- Authors
- Gaba, S., Sheridan, P., Zhou, J., Choi, S., & Lu, W.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Lu, Wei
- Venue
- Nanoscale
- Publisher
- Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC)
- Published
- 2013
- Volume
- 5
- Issue
- 13
- Pages
- 5872
- ISSN
- 2040-3364 (ISSN-L)
- 2040-3372
- OpenAlex
- W2148267286
- Semantic Scholar
- 3f0d761f6dabea7d51ed9a69e9cde6865122afd9
- Cited by
- 307
- References
- 35
- Citations by year
- 2026: 14 · 2025: 23 · 2024: 14 · 2023: 22 · 2022: 24 · 2021: 28 · 2020: 32 · 2019: 30 · 2018: 27 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 19 · 2015: 25 · 2014: 16 · 2013: 3
- FWCI
- 12.60
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- arxiv.org
- Locations
- Nanoscale (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University) (submittedVersion)
- arXiv (Cornell University)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Advanced Memory and Neural Computing
- Physical Sciences › Engineering › Electrical and Electronic Engineering › Ferroelectric and Negative Capacitance Devices
- Physical Sciences › Materials Science › Materials Chemistry › Phase-change materials and chalcogenides
- Keywords
- memristors, resistive switching, stochastic switching, stochastic computing, neuromorphic computing, error-tolerant computing, memristor arrays, non-volatile memory
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-10-09, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-10-09 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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