Gluten and casein free diets in autism: A study of the effects on food choice and nutrition
Abstract
BACKGROUND: There is growing interest in possible dietary involvement in the aetiology and treatment of Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Research has focused on the physiological and behavioural effects of dietary change but has not examined the effect of exclusion diets on nutritional intake. AIMS: The aim of this study was to examine whether the removal of major dietary staples placed children with autism at risk of nutrient deficiency and compares their food choice with ASD children not following gluten and/or casein free diets. METHODS: A postal questionnaire was sent to parents of children aged 3-16 years, diagnosed with ASD belonging to the National Autistic Society in Leicestershire and southern Derbyshire. Detailed dietary information and a 3-day food diary were collected. The sample size was small: those using gluten/casein free diets (n = 8) and those not following diet (n = 29). RESULTS: Nutrient intakes fell below the Lower Reference Nutrient Intake (LRNI) in 12 children (32%) for zinc, calcium, iron, vitamin A, vitamin B12 and riboflavin in the nondiet group and four children (50%) for zinc and calcium in the diet group. Fruit and vegetable intakes were higher and cereal, bread and potato consumption were lower in those children using gluten and/or casein free diets. CONCLUSION: No significant differences in the energy, protein and micronutrient intakes were found between the two groups of children. A longitudinal prospective study is suggested to examine whether differences in food choice are the result of dietary intervention or the prerequisite for the successful application of diet in this special group of children.
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
A substantial number of subjects with ASDs had inadequate intakes of micronutrients, including deficiencies of calcium, iron, zinc, potassium, copper, vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, riboflavin, vitamin C, vitamin B-12, folic acid, and choline.
“Substantial number of subjects with ASDs had inadequate intakes of micronutrients.”
From Autism, Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Modulation of Gut Microbiota by Nutritional Interventions (2019) · cites this paper as [77]
Protein intake in ASD children is adequate or quite similar to that of typically developing children.
“Protein intake was adequate or quite similar to that of typically developing children [69,72,73,74,75,76,77].”
From Autism, Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Modulation of Gut Microbiota by Nutritional Interventions (2019) · cites this paper as [77]
Cites
1 retracted
Wakefield, A., Murch, S., Anthony, A., Linnell, J., Casson, D., Malik, M., Berelowitz, M., Dhillon, A., Thomson, M., Harvey, P., et al. (1998) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(97)11096-0 · Cited by 3,006 · see citing works
RetractedAbnormal intestinal permeability in children with autism
D'Eufemia, P., Celli, M., Finocchiaro, R., Pacifico, L., Viozzi, L., Zaccagnini, M., Cardi, E., & Giardini, O. (1996) · Acta Paediatrica · doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.1996.tb14220.x · Cited by 416 · see citing works
The Autistic Spectrum : A Guide for Parents and Professionals
Wing, L. (1997) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 367 · see citing works
A neurochemical theory of autism
Panksepp, J. (1979) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/0166-2236(79)90071-7 · Cited by 326 · see citing works
Parents and Children in Autism
Thomas, A. (1980) · American Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1176/ajp.137.8.996-a · Cited by 234 · see citing works
Food allergy and infantile autism.
Lucarelli, S., Frediani, T., Zingoni, A. M., Ferruzzi, F., Giardini, O., Quintieri, F., Barbato, M., D’Eufemia, P., & Cardi, E. (1995) · PubMed · Cited by 204 · see citing works
A balanced approach towards healthy eating in autism
Cornish, E. (1998) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1046/j.1365-277x.1998.00132.x · Cited by 153 · see citing works
Self-citationWhiteley, P., Rodgers, J., Savery, D., & Shattock, P. (1999) · Autism · doi:10.1177/1362361399003001005 · Cited by 140 · see citing works
Perspectives on the nutritional ecology of autistic children
Raiten, D. J., & Massaro, T. F. (1986) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/bf01531725 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Minerals in the hair and nutrient intake of autistic children
Shearer, T. R., Larson, K. R., Neuschwander, J., & Gedney, B. (1982) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/bf01531671 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
Waring, R. H., & Klovrza, L. V. (2000) · Journal of Nutritional & Environmental Medicine · doi:10.1080/13590840050000861 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Autistic Syndromes and Diet: a follow‐up study
Knivsberg, A., Reichelt, K. L., N⊘dland, M., & H�ien, T. (1995) · Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/0031383950390304 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
Gluten, milk proteins and autism: dietary intervention effects on behavior and peptide secretion.
Reichelt, K. L., Ekrem, J., & Scott, H. (1990) · Cited by 92 · see citing works
The National Food Guide: development of dietetic criteria and nutritional characteristics
Gatenby, S. J., Hunt, P., & Rayner, M. (1995) · Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics · doi:10.1111/j.1365-277x.1995.tb00326.x · Cited by 49 · see citing works
Childhood autism: A complex disorder
Reichelt, K. L., Sælid, G. A., Lindback, T., & Bøler, J. B. (1986) · Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/0006-3223(86)90310-0 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Brief report: Alternative approaches to the development of effective treatments for autism
Rimland, B., & Baker, S. M. (1996) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/bf02172019 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
[Gluten-free diet in infantile autism. A therapeutic trial].
Sponheim, E. (1991) · PubMed · Cited by 29 · see citing works
Flagged first, then by citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Feeding Problems in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Review
Ledford, J. R., & Gast, D. L. (2006) · Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities · doi:10.1177/10883576060210030401 · Cited by 388 · see citing works
Pediatric Feeding Disorders: A Quantitative Synthesis of Treatment Outcomes
Sharp, W. G., Jaquess, D. L., Morton, J. F., & Herzinger, C. V. (2010) · Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0079-7 · Cited by 282 · see citing works
Nutrient Intake From Food in Children With Autism
Hyman, S. L., Stewart, P. A., Schmidt, B., Cain, U., Lemcke, N., Foley, J. T., Peck, R., Clemons, T., Reynolds, A., Johnson, C., et al. (2012) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2012-0900l · Cited by 255 · see citing works
Herndon, A. C., DiGuiseppi, C., Johnson, S. L., Leiferman, J., & Reynolds, A. (2009) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0606-2 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Autism, Gastrointestinal Symptoms and Modulation of Gut Microbiota by Nutritional Interventions
Ristori, M. V., Quagliariello, A., Reddel, S., Ianiro, G., Vicari, S., Gasbarrini, A., & Putignani, L. (2019) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu11112812 · Cited by 214 · see citing works
Nutritional Status of Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Do We Know Enough?
Ranjan, S., & Nasser, J. A. (2015) · Advances in Nutrition · doi:10.3945/an.114.007914 · Cited by 173 · see citing works
Lockner, D. W., Crowe, T. K., & Skipper, B. J. (2008) · Journal of the American Dietetic Association · doi:10.1016/j.jada.2008.05.003 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Evidence of the Gluten-Free and Casein-Free Diet in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Systematic Review
Marí-Bauset, S., Zazpe, I., Mari-Sanchis, A., Llopis-González, A., & Morales-Suárez-Varela, M. (2014) · Journal of Child Neurology · doi:10.1177/0883073814531330 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
A preliminary study on nutritional status and intake in Chinese children with autism
Xia, W., Zhou, Y., Sun, C., Wang, J., & Wu, L. (2010) · European Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1007/s00431-010-1203-x · Cited by 124 · see citing works
A Comparison of Nutrient Intake and Eating Behaviors of Boys with and Without Autism
Schmitt, L., Heiss, C. J., & Campbell, E. E. (2008) · Topics in Clinical Nutrition · doi:10.1097/01.tin.0000312077.45953.6c · Cited by 101 · see citing works
Nutritional status of children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs): A case—Control study
Marí-Bauset, S., Llopis-González, A., Zazpe-García, I., Marí-Sanchis, A., & Morales-Suárez-Varela, M. (2015) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2205-8 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
Dietary adequacy of children with autism compared with controls and the impact of restricted diet
Graf-Myles, J., Farmer, C., Thurm, A., Royster, C., Kahn, P., Soskey, L., Rothschild, L., & Swedo, S. (2013) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0b013e3182a00d17 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
González-Domenech, P. J., Díaz Atienza, F., García Pablos, C., Fernández Soto, M. L., Martínez-Ortega, J. M., & Gutiérrez-Rojas, L. (2020) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-019-04333-1 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
Nutritional Impact of a Gluten-Free Casein-Free Diet in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder
Marí-Bauset, S., Llopis-González, A., Zazpe, I., Marí-Sanchis, A., & Suárez-Varela, M. M. (2016) · Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders · doi:10.1007/s10803-015-2582-7 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Raspini, B., Prosperi, M., Guiducci, L., Santocchi, E., Tancredi, R., Calderoni, S., Morales, M. A., Morelli, M., Simione, M., Fiechtner, L., et al. (2021) · Nutrients · doi:10.3390/nu13114039 · Cited by 55 · see citing works
- Authors
- Cornish, E.
- Corresponding author
- Cornish, E.
- Venue
- Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics
- Publisher
- Wiley
- Published
- 2002-08
- Volume
- 15
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 261-269
- ISSN
- 0952-3871 (ISSN-L)
- 1365-277X
- OpenAlex
- W2099067235
- Cited by
- 137
- References
- 17
- Citations by year
- 2026: 1 · 2025: 3 · 2024: 3 · 2023: 4 · 2022: 5 · 2021: 10 · 2020: 6 · 2019: 8 · 2018: 8 · 2017: 4 · 2016: 2 · 2015: 8 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 10 · 2012: 8
- FWCI
- 2.35
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Health Sciences › Medicine › Psychiatry and Mental health › Child Nutrition and Feeding Issues
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Autism Spectrum Disorder Research
- Health Sciences › Nursing › Nutrition and Dietetics › Nutrition, Health and Food Behavior
- Keywords
- gluten-free diet, casein-free diet, autism spectrum disorder, nutrient intake, micronutrient deficiency, zinc, calcium, iron, vitamin B12, riboflavin, vitamin A, fruit and vegetable intake, cereal consumption, children
- MeSH terms
- Adolescent, Autistic Disorder, Caseins, Child, Child, Preschool, Female, Food Preferences, Glutens, Humans, Male, Nutritional Requirements, Surveys and Questionnaires, Diet Records, Nutrition Policy
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
