The DOI matches its Crossref record; 58 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 25 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
We use data on police-involved deaths to estimate how the risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States varies across social groups. We estimate the lifetime and age-specific risks of being killed by police by race and sex. We also provide estimates of the proportion of all deaths accounted for by police use of force. We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course. The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women. Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups. For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
44 Own result · 5 Own method · 4 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 4 No basis given · 3 Partly supported · 2 Not checked yet · 2 Own interpretation · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Unofficial media-based methods provide more comprehensive information on police violence than do the limited official data currently available (4,33,34).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Research Strategy and Key Findings
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [4] 4. N. Krieger, J. T. Chen, P. D. Waterman, M. V. Kiang, J. Feldman, Police killings and police deaths are public health data and can be counted. PLoS Med. 12, e1001915 (2015). source
The Summary Points report that The Guardian’s unofficial count of people killed by police was twice the number expected from FBI estimates. “Counting for Accountability” says official mortality data likely underreport police killings and lack timely, detailed reporting. The comparison supports the claim for lethal police violence; the paper does not assess nonlethal incidents. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [33] 33. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Quantifying underreporting of law- enforcement-related deaths in United States vital statistics and news-media-based data sources: A capture -recapture analysis. PLoS Med. 14, e1002399 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusions and the section ‘Estimates of the number of US law-enforcement-related deaths in 2015’ show that the media-based source The Counted recorded substantially more law-enforcement-related deaths than the official NVSS. The paper studies deaths, however, not police violence generally or nonfatal incidents, so it supports the comparison only for fatal cases. Page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While a substantial body of evidence shows that people of color, especially African Americans, are at greater risk for experiencing criminal justice contact and police-involved harm than are whites (14-19)”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. R. Kramer, B. Remster, Stop, frisk, and assault? Racial disparities in police use of force during investigatory stops. Law Soc. Rev. 52, 960-993 (2018). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] 15. R. Brame, M. G. Turner, R. Paternoster, S. D. Bushway, Cumulative prevalence of arrest from ages 8 to 23 in a national sample. Pediatrics 129, 21-27 (2012). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [16] 16. B. Pettit, B. Western, Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69, 151-169 (2004). source
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract says people of color face greater police-involved harm than White people and reports higher police-homicide risk for Black and Latino men than for White men. The paper does not establish the separate claim that people of color face greater risk of criminal justice contact generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [18] 18. A. C. Mooney, S. McConville, A. J. Rappaport, R. Y. Hsia, Association of legal inter- vention injuries with race and ethnicity among patients treated in emergency departments in California. JAMA Network Open 1, e182150-e182150 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report substantially more legal-intervention injuries per capita among Black than white individuals, and the Discussion links much of that difference to higher arrest rates among Black individuals. The paper does not establish greater criminal-justice contact and police-involved harm for people of color generally: it reports substantially lower injury rates for Asian/Pacific Islander individuals and lower injuries per arrest for Hispanic individuals than for white individuals. Its injury findings concern California emergency-department patients, not all forms of police-involved harm. (LLM, conf=0.87)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] 19. D. Knox, W. Lowe, J. Mummolo, The bias is built in: How administrative records mask racially biased policing. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3336338 (April 26, 2019). source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black women are about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than are white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“This ranks police use of force as one of the leading causes of death for young men.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Risk for all groups peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y and declines with age.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black men are about 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police over the life course than are white men.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women's risk of being killed by police use of force is about an order of magnitude lower than men's risk at all ages”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Between the ages of 25 y and 29 y, black men are killed by police at a rate between 2.8 and 4.1 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Asian/Pacific Islander men are killed by police at a rate between 0.3 and 0.6 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.05% of all deaths of Asian/Pacific Islander women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While the methods used in this paper allow for nationally precise age-, race-, and gender-specific mortality estimates, they may mask important subnational variation and changes in risk over time (17,36).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Methods acknowledge that states grouped within the same Census division differ, supporting the concern that geographic grouping may obscure subnational variation. The paper uses data spanning 2012 to early 2018, but the passages do not assess changes in risk over time or say that the methods mask them. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not matchedcites [36] 36. R. E Morgan, G. Kena, Criminal victimization, 2016 (NCJ, 251150, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, DC, 2017).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Among all groups, black men and boys face the highest lifetime risk of being killed by police.”
- Also stated in: § Results · hedged
“Our models predict that about 1 in 1,000 black men and boys will be killed by police over the life course (96 [77, 120] per 100,000).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We estimate that over the life course, at levels of risk similar to those observed between 2013 and 2018, about 52 [39,68] (90% uncertainty interval) of every 100,000 men and boys in the United States will be killed by police use of force over the life course, and about 3 [1.5, 4.5] of every 100,000 women and girls will be killed by police over the life course.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, this ratio is strongly correlated with age and race and is starkly unequal across racial groups.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.16% of all deaths of Latina women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both Asian/Pacific Islander men and women are more than 50% less likely to be killed by police than are white men and women, respectively.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police use of force accounts for 0.05% of all male deaths in the United States and 0.003% of all female deaths”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.11% of all deaths of white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Racially unequal exposure to the risk of state violence has profound consequences for public health, democracy, and racial stratification (5,(7)(8)(9)11).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites (5,(7)(8)(9)11)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Prior research suggests that despite high contemporary rates, the risk of being killed by police was higher in decades past (37).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] 37. C. T. Ross, A multi-level Bayesian analysis of racial bias in police shootings at the county-level in the United States, 2011 -2014. PLoS One 10, e0141854 (2015). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The meaning of race, age, and gender for police violence emerges in the interactions between how officers perceive an individual's identity and the salience of these classifications for perceptions of criminality, belonging, and dangerousness (1,10,25,39).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] 1. S. Alang, D. McAlpine, E. McCreedy, R. Hardeman, Police brutality and black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am. J. Public Health 107, 662-665 (2017). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] 10. K. G. Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2011). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [25] 25. J. Legewie, M. Schaeffer, Contested boundaries: Explaining where ethnoracial diversity provokes neighborhood conflict. Am. J. Sociol. 122, 125-161 (2016). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] 39. E. P. Monk, The cost of color: Skin color, discrimination, and health among African- Americans. Am. J. Sociol. 121, 396-444 (2015). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43,44).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] 43. L. W. Sherman, Reducing fatal police shootings as system crashes: Research, theory, and practice. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1, 421-449 (2018).
- Not matchedcites [44] 44. R. Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2007).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police violence is a leading cause of death for young men, and young men of color face exceptionally high risk of being killed by police.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“FE provides more comprehensive data on police-involved deaths than do official mortality files (34), has a broader scope than similar unofficial efforts to document deaths, and has been endorsed as a sound source of data by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (47).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [47] 47. National Center for Health Statistics, Multiple cause of death data, 2000 -2017. https://www.nber.org/data/vital-statistics-mortality-data-multiple-cause-of-death. html. Accessed 25 January 2019.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“List- wise deletion of missing cases unrealistically understates uncertainty in our parameter estimates and negatively biases mortality risk estimates (SI Appendix, Fig. S8).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
“with the central assumption that risk profiles observed between 2013 and 2018 remain stable”
“with the key assumption that underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed levels throughout the life course”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“If this pattern holds true nationwide, it means we have underestimated the extent of racial disparities in police use of deadly force based on the racial makeup of the population [2, 3, 26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Prior research suggests the risk of being killed by police is highest for all racial groups between the ages of 20 and 35 [26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
In the citing paper
“The evidence is mixed as to whether CITs are effective at preventing police violence (80, 81).”
From Structural Racism and Suicide Prevention for Ethnoracially Minoritized Youth: A Conceptual Framework and Illustration Across Systems (2022) · cites this paper as [80]
Citations
Cites
mice: Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations in R
Buuren, S. V., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v045.i03 · Cited by 13,870
(2010) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 6,037
Punishment and inequality in America
Joseph, M. (2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-4178 · Cited by 2,066
Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California
Mobley, A. (2008) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.1177/009430610803700238 · Cited by 1,851 · cited 1×
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43, 44).”
BackgroundDemography, Measuring and Modeling Population Processes
Véron, J., Preston, S. H., Heuveline, P., & Guillot, M. (2002) · Population · doi:10.2307/1535065 · Cited by 1,709
Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration
Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240406900201 · Cited by 1,499
Rios, V. M. (2011) · New York University Press eBooks · doi:10.18574/nyu/9780814777114.001.0001 · Cited by 1,270
(2017) · Anarchist studies · Cited by 1,217
(2007) · Cited by 1,200
Gelman, A., Fagan, J., & Kiss, A. (2007) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1198/016214506000001040 · Cited by 873
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- J. Soss, V. Weaver, Learning from Ferguson: Policing, race, and class in American politics. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 20, 565–591 (2017).
- A. S. Vitale, The End of Policing (Verso Books, New York, NY, 2017).
- T. Y. Rocha Beardall “Transactional policing: Reframing local police-community relations through the lens of police employment ” PhD thesis Cornell University Ithaca NY (2019).
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 933
Premkumar, D. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3715223 · Cited by 24
Curry, T. J. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-83947-5_27 · Cited by 15
A Class Functionalist Theory of Race
Calnitsky, D., & Billeaux-Martinez, M. (2023) · Du Bois Review Social Science Research on Race · doi:10.1017/s1742058x22000224 · Cited by 14
Policing and Population Health: Past, Present, and Future.
Lee, H., Larimore, S., & Esposito, M. H. (2023) · Milbank Quarterly · doi:10.1111/1468-0009.12628 · Cited by 9
Self-citationCoping While Black: Comparing Coping Strategies Across COVID-19 and the Killing of Black People
Cox, J. M., Toussaint, A., Woerner, J. I., Smith, A. C., & Haeny, A. M. (2023) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-023-01600-x · Cited by 13
“Presently, Black men are nearly three times more likely than White men to be killed by police [42], and Black people are killed by the police at higher rates than any other racial group [18].”
Misclassification and Bias in Predictions of Individual Ethnicity from Administrative Records
Argyle, L. P., & Barber, M. J. (2023) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055423000229 · Cited by 14
“…and Sahn 2020), lending in housing and auto markets (Baines and Courchane 2014; Thomas 2017), criminal justice (Edwards, Esposito, and Lee 2018; Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019), health and medical outcomes (Adjaye-Gbewonyo et al. 2014; Nguyen et al. 2019), and policymaking (Einstein, Glick,…”
BackgroundPublic trust is earned: Historical discrimination, carceral violence, and the COVID ‐19 pandemic
Anderson, A., Lewis, D. F., Shafer, P. R., Anderson, J., & LaVeist, T. A. (2023) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6773.14187 · Cited by 14
Kim, Y., Beale, A. M., Rasmussen, H. F., Kazmierski, K. F. M., & Margolin, G. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116410 · Cited by 13
Boen, C., Graetz, N., Olson, H., Ansari-Thomas, Z., Bixby, L. E., Schut, R. A., & Lee, H. E. (2022) · Demographic Research · doi:10.4054/demres.2022.46.5 · Cited by 12
“…public events and scholarship have brought attention to the role of deadly police violence in contributing to population patterns of mortality (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019), but contacts with the criminal legal system need not result in death to have lasting and irreversible effects on…”
BackgroundSelf-citationThe Struggle Is Real: Employee Reactions to Indirect Trauma from Anti-Black Policing
Ruggs, E. N., Marshburn, C. K., Summerville, K. M., & Grenier, K. (2022) · Journal of Business and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10869-022-09823-1 · Cited by 13
A Note on Posttreatment Selection in Studying Racial Discrimination in Policing
Zhao, Q., Keele, L. J., Small, D. S., & Joffe, M. M. (2021) · American Political Science Review · doi:10.1017/s0003055421000654 · Cited by 14
How Resistance Shapes Health and Well-Being
Essex, R. (2022) · Journal of Bioethical Inquiry · doi:10.1007/s11673-022-10183-x · Cited by 14
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.001.0001 · Cited by 12
Saying Her Name: Gendered Narratives in News Coverage of Breonna Taylor's Death
Cecil, D. K. (2022) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687211070552 · Cited by 12
“Research demonstrates that men are signi fi cantly more likely than women to be victims of police violence with women ’ s lifetime risk of being killed by the police being 20 times lower than that of men (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialMotley, R., Joe, S., McQueen, A., Clifton, M., & Carlton-Brown, D. (2022) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000525 · Cited by 12
Brown, R. K., Brown, R. K., Brown, R. E., et al. (2023) · Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion · doi:10.1111/jssr.12844 · Cited by 12
Police‐perpetrated racism and health in African American and Black communities
Hoggard, L. S., & Lutchman, M. T. (2023) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12868 · Cited by 15
Officer-Involved Killings of Unarmed Black People and Racial Disparities in Sleep Health
Venkataramani, A. S., Bair, E. F., Bor, J. H., Jackson, C. L., Kawachi, I. I., Lee, J., Papachristos, A. V., & Tsai, A. C. (2024) · JAMA Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2023.8003 · Cited by 13
Police discrimination and police distrust among ethnic minority adolescents in Germany
Kogan, I., Weißmann, M., & Dollmann, J. (2024) · Frontiers in Sociology · doi:10.3389/fsoc.2024.1231774 · Cited by 15
Mays, V. M., Cochran, S. D., Sprague, A., et al. (2021) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2021.306442 · Cited by 12
“Police encounters that are more likely to result directly in violent death for Black men are but one risk.(2) Trauma from actual or anticipated encounters in which such violence is possible is yet another corrosive factor”
BackgroundTimmermans, S., & Prickett, P. J. (2021) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/00491241211036163 · Cited by 13
“Over the life course, about one in every 1,000 Black men can expect to be killed by police (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019).”
BackgroundVerhaeghen, P., & Aikman, S. N. (2022) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22840 · Cited by 12
Schimmack, U., & Carlsson, R. (2020) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1917915117 · Cited by 12
Police Brutality and Blacks: An American Immune System Disorder
Brooks, O. T. (2020) · Journal of the National Medical Association · doi:10.1016/j.jnma.2020.06.003 · Cited by 12
Invisible to Political Science: Indigenous Politics in a World in Flux
Falleti, T. G. (2020) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/711568 · Cited by 12
Evaluation of a police training on de-escalation with trauma-exposed youth
Mehari, K. R., Rodgers, C. R. R., Blanton, M. A., & Turner, L. A. (2021) · International journal of law, crime and justice · doi:10.1016/j.ijlcj.2021.100491 · Cited by 12
Hawkins, I., & Saleem, M. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107337 · Cited by 13
Improving Researchers’ Capacity to Address Injustice: An Introduction to the Special Issue
Turner, E. O., Baker, D. J., & Jabbar, H. (2024) · Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis · doi:10.3102/01623737241239982 · Cited by 12
McClain, K. J. (2023) · Adaptation · doi:10.1093/adaptation/apad004 · Cited by 11
Wilson, B. L., Tindall, J., Walker, D., & Smith, A. M. (2023) · Journal of Gender Studies · doi:10.1080/09589236.2023.2236953 · Cited by 13
“Despite shocking statistics of police violence and pregnancy-related deaths for Black women (Alang et al., 2023, CDC, n.d.; Edwards et al., 2019; MacDorman et al., 2021), widespread coverage of these deadly medical and law enforcement encounters remain silenced in mainstream media.”
BackgroundInfluentialJohnson, J. D., Lecci, L. B., & Dovidio, J. F. (2023) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12712 · Cited by 11
Policing Black autistic children: A qualitative approach to understanding Black caregivers’ concerns
Flanagan, A. Y., Cola, M., Yu, N., Peele, H., Dicette, K., Hicks, G., Pelella, M. R., King-Pointer, A., Owens, J., Truong, D. M., et al. (2024) · Autism · doi:10.1177/13623613241303549 · Cited by 14
“This finding is especially troubling, given research showing that Black individuals face significantly greater lifetime risk of being killed by police than White peers (Edwards et al., 2019).”
Race, Ambivalent Sexism, and Perceptions of Situations When Police Shoot Black Women
Brown-Iannuzzi, J. L., Cooley, E., Cipolli, W., & Mehta, S. (2021) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550620987659 · Cited by 11
The Black experience: The entanglement among African American males and law enforcement
Singletary, G. (2021) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22556 · Cited by 12
Berk, R. A., Kuchibhotla, A. K., & Tchetgen, E. T. (2023) · Sociological Methods & Research · doi:10.1177/00491241231155883 · Cited by 24
“…we more simply build on professed differences in privilege consistent with extensive research (Rothenberg 2015; Rocque 2011; Van Cleve and Mayes 2015; Leonard 2017; Wallis 2017; Bhopal 2018; Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019; Jackson 2019; GBD 2019 Police Violence Subnational Collaborators 2021).”
Duxbury, S., & Andrabi, N. (2022) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spac044 · Cited by 11
Disaggregating Asian American and Pacific Islander Risk of Fatal Police Violence
Schwartz, G. L., & Jahn, J. L. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0274745 · Cited by 11
“Previous work has found high rates among Black and American Indian/Alaskan Native, and lower rates for white and Asian, people [3].”
BackgroundMotley, R., Chen, Y., & Motley, J. D. (2023) · Social Work Research · doi:10.1093/swr/svad005 · Cited by 12
Goode, K. L., & Bernardin, A. (2021) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-021-03224-1 · Cited by 13
Dang, T. P., Mattan, B. D., Barth, D. M., Handley, G., Cloutier, J., & Kubota, J. T. (2022) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2022.119153 · Cited by 12
Canevez, R. N., Karabelnik, M., & Winter, J. S. (2022) · Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly · doi:10.1177/10776990221108722 · Cited by 11
“Police violence in America disproportionately targets its Black community (Edwards et al., 2019; Hoekstra & Sloan, 2020; Naghavi, 2021; Nix et al., 2017).”
BackgroundInfluentialWhen Truth Trumps Facts: Studies on Partisan Moral Flexibility in American Politics
Kim, M. J., Hahl, O., Poskanzer, E. J., & Zuckerman, E. W. (2024) · American Journal of Sociology · doi:10.1086/730763 · Cited by 25
“…second leading cause (suicide) for all young men were respectively 42 and 15 times more common than police killings, and other causes, such as other homicides, heart disease, and cancer were also about 12, 4, and 3 times more common, respectively (Edwards et al. 2019, p. 16795; see also CDC 2017).”
BackgroundCarney-Knisely, G., Griffin, M., Crawford, A., Spates, K. S., & Singh, P. (2024) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2024.04.012 · Cited by 10
Methods for studying structural oppression in quantitative family research
Homan, P., Everett, B. G., & Brown, T. H. (2024) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.13003 · Cited by 13
The George Floyd Effect: How Protests and Public Scrutiny Changed Police Behavior
Roman, M., Fredriksson, K., Cassella, C., Epp, D. A., & Walker, H. L. (2025) · Perspectives on Politics · doi:10.1017/s1537592725000052 · Cited by 11
“For members of RCS communities, interactions with the police become routine, and the threat that such interactions might turn fatal is a risk of their second-class status (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019).”
Applewhite, D. A. (2021) · Molecular Biology of the Cell · doi:10.1091/mbc.e21-05-0261 · Cited by 10
Compounding Trauma: the Intersections of Racism, Law Enforcement, and Injury
Bailey, J. A., Jacoby, S. F., Hall, E., Khatri, U., Whitehorn, G. L., & Kaufman, E. J. (2022) · Current Trauma Reports · doi:10.1007/s40719-022-00231-7 · Cited by 7
Spruill, M., & Lewis, N. A. (2022) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916221096110 · Cited by 10
“4 times more likely to be killed by police than White women (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundScott, M., Sabatini, S., & Mama, R. S. (2023) · Journal of Evidence-Based Social Work · doi:10.1080/26408066.2022.2156831 · Cited by 11
Leon, A. N. D., Woerner, J. I., Dvorak, R. D., Cox, J. M., Magri, T. D., Hayden, E. R., Ahuja, M., & Haeny, A. M. (2023) · Chronic Stress · doi:10.1177/24705470231152953 · Cited by 11
Black Women & Gun Ownership in America: An Exploratory Study of Motivations and Strategy
Bowen, D. M., Barber, M., Gomez, M., et al. (2023) · Violence and Gender · doi:10.1089/vio.2022.0001 · Cited by 10
“This qualitative study has three aims: to examine why some black females chose to own a firearm; to investigate strategy for ownership; and explore whether gun ownership satisfied their goals (Edwards et al., 2019; Shinde, 2021).”
Race matters: confronting the legacy of empire and colonialism
Shain, F. (2020) · British Journal of Sociology of Education · doi:10.1080/01425692.2020.1717104 · Cited by 13
“Latino men and boys, black women and girls and Native American men, women and children are also killed by police at higher rates than their white peers (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019).”
BackgroundBrown, L. L., García, C., Reeves, A. N., Pamplin, J. R., & Mitchell, U. A. (2022) · Journal of Aging and Health · doi:10.1177/08982643221086333 · Cited by 10
“…in the context of overt discrimination and collective race related stressors—having come of age during Jim Crow, desegregation, the Civil Rights Movement, and now the Movement for Black Lives that is responding to the disproportionate killing of Black people by the police (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundLewis, K. R., Grossman, K., Jones, N. E., & Horner, M. (2023) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-023-01548-y · Cited by 9
Larson, R. P., Santaularia, N. J., & Uggen, C. (2023) · Spatial and Spatio-temporal Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.sste.2023.100602 · Cited by 9
“(Nummi et al., 2019; Edwards et al., 2019) Specifically, the video recording of the murder highlighted the historic and contemporary racism evident in mass incarceration and the evolving disproportionate impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on Black people.”
BackgroundStress and trauma among police officers: Implications for social work research and practice
Eikenberry, J., Mancini, M. A., Linhorst, D. M., Schafer, J. A., & Brown, J. (2023) · Qualitative Social Work · doi:10.1177/14733250231214512 · Cited by 9
“BIPOC Americans, particularly those who are poor, male, disabled, and young are far more likely to be killed by police than their white counterparts (Edwards et al., 2019; Lett et al., 2020).”
BackgroundBaiden, P., LaBrenz, C. A., Harrell, D. R., Wood, B. M., Gobodzo, E. C., Baiden, J. F., Mets, V. E., Hagedorn, A., & Howry, S. K. (2024) · School Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s12310-023-09627-5 · Cited by 9
“Furthermore, racialized policing may have contributed to reports of NV in this study given that 1 in every 1000 Black men are killed by the police in the USA—a rate 2–5 times higher than that of White men (Edwards et al., 2019).”
Santaularia, N. J., Larson, R., Robertson, C. E., & Uggen, C. (2024) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwae359 · Cited by 9
McCrum, M. L., Zakrison, T. L., Knowlton, L. M., et al. (2024) · Trauma Surgery & Acute Care Open · doi:10.1136/tsaco-2024-001494 · Cited by 9
Parks, N., & Kirby, B. (2021) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-021-00568-6 · Cited by 11
Motley, R., & Joe, S. (2021) · Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research · doi:10.1086/717586 · Cited by 11
“Previous studies have shown that emerging adulthood is a potentially high-risk time for exposure to police use of force, particularly for Black emerging adults (Durose et al., 2007; Edwards et al., 2019; Hyland et al., 2015; Ross, 2015).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialStigma arising from youth police contact: The protective role of mother–youth closeness
Turney, K., Testa, A. M., & Jackson, D. B. (2022) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.12886 · Cited by 8
“…finding fits within the context of structural inequities in policing whereby Black youth are disproportionately exposed to all forms of police contact including routine stops, intrusive contacts, and lethal encounters (Edwards et al., 2018; Edwards et al., 2019; Geller, 2021; Gelman et al., 2007).”
Vachuska, K. F. (2023) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231231157679 · Cited by 9
“For example, Blacks have been found to suffer light-duty vehicle fatalities at nearly twice the rate of Whites (Raifman and Choma 2022).”
BackgroundHow do current police practices impact trauma care in the prehospital setting? A scoping review
Salhi, R. A., Iyengar, S., Bhatia, B. D. S., et al. (2023) · Journal of the American College of Emergency Physicians Open · doi:10.1002/emp2.12974 · Cited by 9
Ewanation, L. A., & Maeder, E. M. (2023) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2023.2219814 · Cited by 14
“Furthermore, recent data from both Canada and the United States suggests that Indigenous persons are over-represented amongst victims killed by the police (Edwards et al., 2019; Lett et al., 2021; Singh, 2020).”
Attitudes Towards Police and Weapon Carriage Among Adolescents
Cunningham, M. C., Cobbina, J., Melde, C., Abad, D., Almanza, M., Goldstick, J. E., Zimmerman, M. A., & Heinze, J. E. (2021) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-021-09643-8 · Cited by 9
Interest groups, local politics, and police unions
DiSalvo, D. (2022) · Interest Groups & Advocacy · doi:10.1057/s41309-021-00146-9 · Cited by 9
“…economists have been particularly interested in the extent to which CBAs affect police behavior, especially whether CBAs protect bad officers from discipline for misconduct and thereby increase the amount of violence visited on citizens by the police (Rushin 2017; Rad 2018; Edwards et al 2019).”
BackgroundMykhalchuk, N. O., Zlyvkov, V., Лукомська, С. О., Nabochuk, A., & Khrystych, N. (2022) · PSYCHOLINGUISTICS · doi:10.31470/2309-1797-2022-31-1-92-117 · Cited by 9
Perceived Racism-based police use of force and cannabis use among Black emerging adults
Motley, R., Byansi, W., Siddiqi, R., Bills, K. L., & Salas‐Wright, C. P. (2022) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2022.100430 · Cited by 10
Ahmed, S., Rhouma, N. R., Younis, E. M., Abdel‐Warith, A. A., Bazeed, S. M., Elshopakey, G. E., Khamis, T., Nabawy, E. E., Davies, S. J., Ibrahim, R. E., et al. (2024) · Aquaculture Reports · doi:10.1016/j.aqrep.2024.102029 · Cited by 9
Single-session Mentalization-based Treatment Group for Law Enforcement Officers
Drozek, R. P., Bateman, A., Henry, J., Connery, H., Smith, G. W., & Tester, R. D. (2021) · International journal of group psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/00207284.2021.1922083 · Cited by 7
“Racial and ethnic minority groups are at increased risk for LE violence, with non-Hispanic Black/African American, American Indian/Alaskan native, and Latinx individuals facing a higher lifetime risk of homicide by police (Edwards et al., 2018, 2019).”
BackgroundPolice Violence and Black Women’s Health
Harris, L. K. K., & Cortés, Y. I. (2022) · The Journal for Nurse Practitioners · doi:10.1016/j.nurpra.2022.02.014 · Cited by 8
Gregory, V. L., & Edmonds, J. L. T. (2023) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2023.2256741 · Cited by 8
“Given the disproportionate rates of imprisonment (Carson, 2022) and police killings (Edwards et al., 2019) for Black men in the United States, issues of cultural trauma for this demographic are of particular importance.”
BackgroundEpistemic Marginalization and Methodology 50 Years after The Death of White Sociology
Johnson, O. (2024) · Sociology of Race and Ethnicity · doi:10.1177/23326492241302332 · Cited by 9
“…and conflated metrics such as these have allowed disparities research to conclude that “fatal OIS are rare phenomena” (Tregle et al. 2018:23) despite it being the fifth leading cause of death for Black men of certain age groups when estimated among Black communities (Edwards et al. 2018, 2019).”
Narcissistic states of privilege.
Anen, S. J. (2019) · Psychoanalytic Psychology · doi:10.1037/pap0000283 · Cited by 8
Joseph, J. (2022) · Peace Review · doi:10.1080/10402659.2022.2044729 · Cited by 9
“Over the lifetime, about 1 in every 1,000 Black men can expect to be killed by police (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialCan a racial justice frame help overcome opposition to automated traffic enforcement?
Ralph, K. M., Barajas, J. M., Johnson-Rodriguez, A., et al. (2022) · Transportation Research Interdisciplinary Perspectives · doi:10.1016/j.trip.2022.100594 · Cited by 8
Woodall, D. R., & Shannon, S. (2022) · Social Service Review · doi:10.1086/719939 · Cited by 8
“Being Black is interwoven with perceived crimi-nality; hence, the violence that Black people endureis ever present and,with compounding perceptions of danger and criminality inscribed into Black bodies, is much more likely to be deadly (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019).”
Background“No One Should Feel Like They're Unsafe”
Romano, E. F. T., Baquero, B. I., Hicks, O., et al. (2022) · Family & Community Health · doi:10.1097/fch.0000000000000344 · Cited by 8
Bystander reporting to prevent violent extremism and targeted violence: learning from practitioners
Eisenman, D. P., Weine, S. M., Shah, N. D., Jones, N. V., Smith, C. P., Thomas, P. J., & Grossman, M. (2022) · Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression · doi:10.1080/19434472.2022.2130960 · Cited by 8
“However, while previous studies in Australia (Grossman, 2015) and the UK (Thomas et al., 2017) have explored these issues, little is known in the U.S. about the reporting processes for intimate bystanders.”
InfluentialMulti-group data versus dual-side theory: On race contrasts and police-caused homicides
Wilkes, R., & Karimi, A. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.115946 · Cited by 8
Reimagining Public Safety: Defining “Community” in Participatory Research
Levy, N., Lerman, A. E., & Dixon, P. A. (2023) · Law & Social Inquiry · doi:10.1017/lsi.2022.94 · Cited by 8
“African Americans are more likely to be stopped and questioned by police (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019; DeVylder et al. 2022).”
BackgroundWilf, S. B., Reed, T. A., Millet, V. E., Ortiz, S. M., & Wray‐Lake, L. (2023) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.12889 · Cited by 8
Revolutionary Love for Black Children in Early Childhood Classrooms
Wynter‐Hoyte, K., Boutte, G. S., & Bryan, N. (2023) · Language Arts · doi:10.58680/la202332596 · Cited by 8
Lewis, T. T., Parker, R., Erving, C. L., Udaipuria, S., Murden, R., Fields, N. D., Booker, B., Moore, R. H., & Vaccarino, V. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116699 · Cited by 9
Officer gunpoint during police stops: Repercussions for youth mental health and perceived safety
Jackson, D. B., Fix, R. L., Semenza, D. C., Testa, A. M., Ward, J. A., & Crifasi, C. K. (2024) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/jora.13003 · Cited by 8
Ward, J. A., Johnson, O., Cepeda, J. A., Jackson, D. B., Webster, D. W., & Crifasi, C. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine (1967) · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117460 · Cited by 10
Zimmerman, G. M., Fridel, E. E., Sheppard, K. G., & Lawshe, N. L. (2020) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2020.101749 · Cited by 8
Prevention of Firearm Injury through Policy and Law: The Social Ecological Model
Durkin, A., Schenck, C. S., Narayan, Y., Nyhan, K., Khoshnood, K., & Vermund, S. H. (2020) · The Journal of Law Medicine & Ethics · doi:10.1177/1073110520979422 · Cited by 8
Ghezzi, E. L., Funk, J. A., & Houmanfar, R. A. (2021) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-020-00530-y · Cited by 8
The Toll of Racism on African American Mothers and Their Infants
Dreyer, B. P. (2021) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.38828 · Cited by 8
Counter-Terrorism, Ethics and Technology
Henschke, A., Reed, A., Robbins, S., & Miller, S. (2021) · Advanced sciences and technologies for security applications · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-90221-6 · Cited by 28
Racial discrimination and health among two generations of African American couples
Barr, A. B., Simons, R. L., Beach, S. R. H., & Simons, L. G. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114768 · Cited by 10
Police Training and Accountability: A Remedy or an Impediment for Reducing Unarmed Police Shootings?
O’Guinn, B. J. (2022) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287221074959 · Cited by 9
“Recent estimates suggest that black men are more than two times likely to be killed by police over their life course compared to white men (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluential“Crime” in Context: Racialized Physical Space Shifts Person-Perception
James, D., Bonam, C. M., & Taylor, V. J. (2022) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-022-09361-8 · Cited by 8
“Overall, police officers use more physically coercive force with black versus white suspects (Edwards et al., 2019), and this disparity holds whether these interactions occur in predominately black or white areas (Feldman et al.”
BackgroundThe Lynching Era and Contemporary Lethal Police Shootings in the South
Lyons, C. J., Painter‐Davis, N., & Medaris, D. C. (2022) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687221120951 · Cited by 8
“However, Black, American Indian/Alaskan Native and Latinx Americans face by far the greatest risks (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundEthical problems with kindness in healthcare
Jesudason, E. P. (2022) · Journal of Medical Ethics · doi:10.1136/jme-2022-108357 · Cited by 8
“27 28 But this can also damage the trust needed by the ingroup in order to do their job.”
BackgroundChaudhary, M. J., Weaver, V. M., & Prowse, G. (2023) · Journal of Urban Affairs · doi:10.1080/07352166.2022.2160338 · Cited by 8
“…the significant health impacts of such internalization across the life cycle ranging from adverse mental health and substance use outcomes among Black youth (Jindal et al., 2021) to homicide amongst younger and older adults (Edwards et al., 2019) to trauma lasting into old age (Bor et al., 2018).”
Racial–Ethnic Disparities in Dual-Function Life Expectancy
Bauldry, S., Thomas, P. A., Sauerteig-Rolston, M. R., & Ferraro, K. F. (2023) · The Journals of Gerontology Series A · doi:10.1093/gerona/glad059 · Cited by 8
Reducing Indigenous suicide: Recognizing vital land and food systems for livelihoods
Elliott‐Groves, E., & Bang, M. (2023) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12712 · Cited by 9
Metadata
- Authors
- Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M.
- Affiliations
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Edwards, Frank
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2019-08-05
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 34
- Pages
- 16793-16798
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC6708348
- OpenAlex
- W2965198355
- Cited by
- 916
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 108 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 151 · 2022: 188 · 2021: 161 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 467.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- police use of force, racial disparities, age-specific risk, sex differences, African American men, Hispanic men, Hispanic women, young men of color, causes of death
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Death, Ethnicity, Female, Humans, Male, Risk, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Police, Racial Groups, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-29, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-29 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
