The DOI matches its Crossref record; 58 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 25 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
We use data on police-involved deaths to estimate how the risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States varies across social groups. We estimate the lifetime and age-specific risks of being killed by police by race and sex. We also provide estimates of the proportion of all deaths accounted for by police use of force. We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course. The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women. Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups. For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.
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Claims the paper makes
44 Own result · 5 Own method · 4 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 4 No basis given · 3 Partly supported · 2 Not checked yet · 2 Own interpretation · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Unofficial media-based methods provide more comprehensive information on police violence than do the limited official data currently available (4,33,34).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Research Strategy and Key Findings
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [4] 4. N. Krieger, J. T. Chen, P. D. Waterman, M. V. Kiang, J. Feldman, Police killings and police deaths are public health data and can be counted. PLoS Med. 12, e1001915 (2015). source
The Summary Points report that The Guardian’s unofficial count of people killed by police was twice the number expected from FBI estimates. “Counting for Accountability” says official mortality data likely underreport police killings and lack timely, detailed reporting. The comparison supports the claim for lethal police violence; the paper does not assess nonlethal incidents. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [33] 33. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Quantifying underreporting of law- enforcement-related deaths in United States vital statistics and news-media-based data sources: A capture -recapture analysis. PLoS Med. 14, e1002399 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusions and the section ‘Estimates of the number of US law-enforcement-related deaths in 2015’ show that the media-based source The Counted recorded substantially more law-enforcement-related deaths than the official NVSS. The paper studies deaths, however, not police violence generally or nonfatal incidents, so it supports the comparison only for fatal cases. Page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While a substantial body of evidence shows that people of color, especially African Americans, are at greater risk for experiencing criminal justice contact and police-involved harm than are whites (14-19)”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. R. Kramer, B. Remster, Stop, frisk, and assault? Racial disparities in police use of force during investigatory stops. Law Soc. Rev. 52, 960-993 (2018). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] 15. R. Brame, M. G. Turner, R. Paternoster, S. D. Bushway, Cumulative prevalence of arrest from ages 8 to 23 in a national sample. Pediatrics 129, 21-27 (2012). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [16] 16. B. Pettit, B. Western, Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69, 151-169 (2004). source
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract says people of color face greater police-involved harm than White people and reports higher police-homicide risk for Black and Latino men than for White men. The paper does not establish the separate claim that people of color face greater risk of criminal justice contact generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [18] 18. A. C. Mooney, S. McConville, A. J. Rappaport, R. Y. Hsia, Association of legal inter- vention injuries with race and ethnicity among patients treated in emergency departments in California. JAMA Network Open 1, e182150-e182150 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report substantially more legal-intervention injuries per capita among Black than white individuals, and the Discussion links much of that difference to higher arrest rates among Black individuals. The paper does not establish greater criminal-justice contact and police-involved harm for people of color generally: it reports substantially lower injury rates for Asian/Pacific Islander individuals and lower injuries per arrest for Hispanic individuals than for white individuals. Its injury findings concern California emergency-department patients, not all forms of police-involved harm. (LLM, conf=0.87)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] 19. D. Knox, W. Lowe, J. Mummolo, The bias is built in: How administrative records mask racially biased policing. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3336338 (April 26, 2019). source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black women are about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than are white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“This ranks police use of force as one of the leading causes of death for young men.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Risk for all groups peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y and declines with age.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black men are about 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police over the life course than are white men.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women's risk of being killed by police use of force is about an order of magnitude lower than men's risk at all ages”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Between the ages of 25 y and 29 y, black men are killed by police at a rate between 2.8 and 4.1 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Asian/Pacific Islander men are killed by police at a rate between 0.3 and 0.6 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.05% of all deaths of Asian/Pacific Islander women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While the methods used in this paper allow for nationally precise age-, race-, and gender-specific mortality estimates, they may mask important subnational variation and changes in risk over time (17,36).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Methods acknowledge that states grouped within the same Census division differ, supporting the concern that geographic grouping may obscure subnational variation. The paper uses data spanning 2012 to early 2018, but the passages do not assess changes in risk over time or say that the methods mask them. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not matchedcites [36] 36. R. E Morgan, G. Kena, Criminal victimization, 2016 (NCJ, 251150, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, DC, 2017).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Among all groups, black men and boys face the highest lifetime risk of being killed by police.”
- Also stated in: § Results · hedged
“Our models predict that about 1 in 1,000 black men and boys will be killed by police over the life course (96 [77, 120] per 100,000).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We estimate that over the life course, at levels of risk similar to those observed between 2013 and 2018, about 52 [39,68] (90% uncertainty interval) of every 100,000 men and boys in the United States will be killed by police use of force over the life course, and about 3 [1.5, 4.5] of every 100,000 women and girls will be killed by police over the life course.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, this ratio is strongly correlated with age and race and is starkly unequal across racial groups.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.16% of all deaths of Latina women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both Asian/Pacific Islander men and women are more than 50% less likely to be killed by police than are white men and women, respectively.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police use of force accounts for 0.05% of all male deaths in the United States and 0.003% of all female deaths”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.11% of all deaths of white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Racially unequal exposure to the risk of state violence has profound consequences for public health, democracy, and racial stratification (5,(7)(8)(9)11).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites (5,(7)(8)(9)11)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Prior research suggests that despite high contemporary rates, the risk of being killed by police was higher in decades past (37).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] 37. C. T. Ross, A multi-level Bayesian analysis of racial bias in police shootings at the county-level in the United States, 2011 -2014. PLoS One 10, e0141854 (2015). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The meaning of race, age, and gender for police violence emerges in the interactions between how officers perceive an individual's identity and the salience of these classifications for perceptions of criminality, belonging, and dangerousness (1,10,25,39).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] 1. S. Alang, D. McAlpine, E. McCreedy, R. Hardeman, Police brutality and black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am. J. Public Health 107, 662-665 (2017). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] 10. K. G. Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2011). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [25] 25. J. Legewie, M. Schaeffer, Contested boundaries: Explaining where ethnoracial diversity provokes neighborhood conflict. Am. J. Sociol. 122, 125-161 (2016). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] 39. E. P. Monk, The cost of color: Skin color, discrimination, and health among African- Americans. Am. J. Sociol. 121, 396-444 (2015). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43,44).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] 43. L. W. Sherman, Reducing fatal police shootings as system crashes: Research, theory, and practice. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1, 421-449 (2018).
- Not matchedcites [44] 44. R. Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2007).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police violence is a leading cause of death for young men, and young men of color face exceptionally high risk of being killed by police.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“FE provides more comprehensive data on police-involved deaths than do official mortality files (34), has a broader scope than similar unofficial efforts to document deaths, and has been endorsed as a sound source of data by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (47).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [47] 47. National Center for Health Statistics, Multiple cause of death data, 2000 -2017. https://www.nber.org/data/vital-statistics-mortality-data-multiple-cause-of-death. html. Accessed 25 January 2019.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“List- wise deletion of missing cases unrealistically understates uncertainty in our parameter estimates and negatively biases mortality risk estimates (SI Appendix, Fig. S8).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
“with the central assumption that risk profiles observed between 2013 and 2018 remain stable”
“with the key assumption that underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed levels throughout the life course”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“If this pattern holds true nationwide, it means we have underestimated the extent of racial disparities in police use of deadly force based on the racial makeup of the population [2, 3, 26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Prior research suggests the risk of being killed by police is highest for all racial groups between the ages of 20 and 35 [26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
In the citing paper
“The evidence is mixed as to whether CITs are effective at preventing police violence (80, 81).”
From Structural Racism and Suicide Prevention for Ethnoracially Minoritized Youth: A Conceptual Framework and Illustration Across Systems (2022) · cites this paper as [80]
Citations
Cites
mice: Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations in R
Buuren, S. V., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v045.i03 · Cited by 13,870
(2010) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 6,037
Punishment and inequality in America
Joseph, M. (2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-4178 · Cited by 2,066
Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California
Mobley, A. (2008) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.1177/009430610803700238 · Cited by 1,851 · cited 1×
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43, 44).”
BackgroundDemography, Measuring and Modeling Population Processes
Véron, J., Preston, S. H., Heuveline, P., & Guillot, M. (2002) · Population · doi:10.2307/1535065 · Cited by 1,709
Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration
Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240406900201 · Cited by 1,499
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- A. S. Vitale, The End of Policing (Verso Books, New York, NY, 2017).
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Items 101–200 of 933
How Does Structural Racism Operate (in) the Contemporary US Criminal Justice System?
Lee, H. (2023) · Annual Review of Criminology · doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-015019 · Cited by 35
Self-citationDecoupling Crisis Response from Policing — A Step Toward Equitable Psychiatric Emergency Services
Rafla-Yuan, E., Chhabra, D., & Mensah, M. O. (2021) · New England Journal of Medicine · doi:10.1056/nejmms2035710 · Cited by 36
Bentley, K. H., Maimone, J. S., Kilbury, E. N., Tate, M. S., Wisniewski, H., Levine, M., Roberg, R., Torous, J. B., Nock, M. K., & Kleiman, E. M. (2021) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102098 · Cited by 35
Adolescents' views of defunding the police, abolishing the police, and “The Talk”
Fine, A., & Toro, J. D. (2022) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22810 · Cited by 31
Hicken, M. T., Payne-Sturges, D., & McCoy, E. D. (2023) · Current Environmental Health Reports · doi:10.1007/s40572-023-00390-y · Cited by 29
Do Police Body-Worn Cameras Reduce Citizen Fatalities? Results of a Country-Wide Natural Experiment
Miller, J., & Chillar, V. F. (2021) · Journal of quantitative criminology · doi:10.1007/s10940-021-09513-w
Pediatric firearm injury trends in the United States: A national trauma data bank (NTDB) analysis
Cheng, T., & Burjonrappa, S. C. (2021) · Journal of Pediatric Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2021.10.040 · Cited by 29
A Decade of Police Use of Deadly Force Research (2011–2020)
Mora, D. O., Terrill, W., & Foster, J. (2022) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/10887679221123591 · Cited by 30
“…to be shot by the police in police-citizen encounters controlling for several relevant factors (Charbonneau et al., 2017; DeGue et al., 2016; Edwards et al., 2019; Fagan & Campbell, 2020; Legewie & Fagan, 2016; Nix et al., 2017, Ross, 2015; Scott et al., 2017; Shjarback & Nix, 2020; Tregle…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialPosey, B. M. (2023) · Homicide Studies · doi:10.1177/10887679231209227 · Cited by 30
“Recent research has found that Black women are about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than are White women (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialKnopf, A., Budhwani, H., Logie, C. H., Oruche, U. M., Wyatt, E., & Draucker, C. B. (2021) · Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care · doi:10.1097/jnc.0000000000000270 · Cited by 28
“However, recent research indicates that Blackmen are 3.2 to 3.5 times more likely to be killed by the police than White men, with significant variation in risk by urbanity and region (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialRace and ethnicity data for first, middle, and surnames
Rosenman, E. T. R., Olivella, S., & Imai, K. (2023) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-023-02202-2 · Cited by 27
Policy solutions to eliminate racial and ethnic child health disparities in the USA
Jindal, M., Barnert, E. S., Chomilo, N. T., Gilpin, S., Cohen, A., Crookes, D. M., Kershaw, K. N., Kozhimannil, K. B., Mistry, K. B., Shlafer, R. J., et al. (2024) · The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/s2352-4642(23)00262-6 · Cited by 29
Did the Murder of George Floyd Damage Public Perceptions of Police and Law in the United States?
Fine, A., Oliveira, T. R., Jackson, J., Bradford, B., Trinkner, R. J., & Pósch, K. (2024) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00224278241263527 · Cited by 30
“Over 1,000 members of the public die at the hands of the police in the United States every year (Edwards and Esposito 2019; GBD 2019; Schwartz and Jahn 2020; Hirsch fi eld 2023), but what made Floyd ’ s murder particularly disturbing was that Floyd was unarmed and Chauvin knelt on Floyd ’ s neck for…”
“I can't breathe”: A call for antiracist nursing practice
Koschmann, K. S., Jeffers, N. K., & Heidari, O. (2020) · Nursing Outlook · doi:10.1016/j.outlook.2020.07.004 · Cited by 26
Police Violence and Associations With Public Perceptions of the Police
Jackson, A. N., Fedina, L., DeVylder, J., & Barth, R. P. (2020) · Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research · doi:10.1086/711683 · Cited by 25
“Research has shown that Black and Latino/a adults aremore likely to experience police violence than white adults (Davis et al., 2018; Edwards et al., 2019; Ross, 2015; Tregle et al., 2019).”
BackgroundMitchell, J., & Chihaya, G. K. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114989 · Cited by 29
Lawrence, R. G., & Richardson, A. V. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.001.0001 · Cited by 26
Psychophysiological and affective reactivity to vicarious police violence
Sosoo, E. E., MacCormack, J. K., & Neblett, E. W. (2022) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.14065 · Cited by 26
Deriving Expert Knowledge of Situational Awareness in Policing: a Mixed-Methods Study
Huhta, J., Nota, P. M. D., Hietanen, T., & Ropo, E. (2023) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-023-09574-6 · Cited by 30
Nolan, J. E. S., Coker, E. S., Ward, B. R., Williamson, Y. A., & Harley, K. G. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18020554 · Cited by 26
“Though complex, research indicates a strong connection between being low income (male) and Black, and higher probability of police arrest, imprisonment [49], and police violence, with police force being a leading cause of death for young Black men [50].”
BackgroundPromoting Mental Health and Criminal Justice Collaboration Through System-Level Partnerships
Kamin, D., Weisman, R. L., & Lamberti, J. S. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2022.805649 · Cited by 24
“Floyd’s death garnered international attention, not only because of the video recording that clearly demonstrated excessive force used by police, but also because he was the latest example in a long list of Black men who died because of what many have called law enforcement’s “warrior mentality” (1) combined with the…”
BackgroundShrikant, N., & Sambaraju, R. (2021) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12490 · Cited by 28
Sokol, R. L., Kumodzi, T., Cunningham, R. M., Resnicow, K., Steiger, M., Walton, M. A., Zimmerman, M. A., & Carter, P. M. (2021) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2021.106897 · Cited by 25
Police killings and suicide among Black Americans
Kyriopoulos, I., Vandoros, S., & Kawachi, I. I. (2022) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114964 · Cited by 30
Lethal Police Encounters and Cardiovascular Health among Black Americans
Talbert, R. D. (2022) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-022-01359-7 · Cited by 19
“Lethal police encounters—the stressor under investigation for this study—are an extreme form of police contact, and Black Americans are more likely to be killed by police compared to other ethnoracial groups [2, 4, 5].”
BackgroundInfluentialThe social patterning of vicarious discrimination: Implications for health equity
Quinn, E. B., Ross, J., Boston, P. Q., Mulligan, C. J., & Gravlee, C. C. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116104 · Cited by 28
The Effects of Police Violence on Inner-City StudentsPreprint
Ang, D. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3625082 · Cited by 24
Roberson, Q. M. (2020) · Equality Diversity and Inclusion An International Journal · doi:10.1108/edi-07-2020-0182 · Cited by 23
Drakulich, K., Robles, J., Rodriguez‐Whitney, E., & Pereira, C. (2022) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00224278221120781 · Cited by 23
Uzzi, M., Whittaker, S., Esposito, M. H., Dean, L. T., Buggs, S., & Porter, K. M. P. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117255 · Cited by 24
“…frameworks led to and substantiated policies such as the stop and frisk, zero-tolerance policing, and the three-strikes law which have largely had harmful and traumatic impacts on Black people and Black communities throughout the US (Edwards et al., 2019; Jackson et al., 2019; Theall et al., 2022).”
Self-citationAllostatic Load, Income, and Race Among Black and White Men in the United States
Tavares, C. D., Bell, C. N., Zare, H., Hudson, D., & Thorpe, R. J. (2022) · American Journal of Men s Health · doi:10.1177/15579883221092290 · Cited by 22
“There are significant racial disparities in hostile police encounters and police killings (Edwards et al., 2019; Geller et al., 2014).”
BackgroundPolicing sexuality: Sexual minority youth, police contact, and health inequity
Schwartz, G. L., Jahn, J. L., & Geller, A. (2022) · SSM - Population Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmph.2022.101292 · Cited by 25
“Most directly, the invasive conduct of many police stops (Geller, 2021) creates physical injury risks (Edwards et al., 2019; Feldman et al., 2016).”
BackgroundLewis, T. T., Parker, R., Murden, R., Spikes, T. A., Erving, C. L., McKinnon, I. I., Dyke, M. E. V., Booker, B., Quyummi, A., Vaccarino, V., et al. (2023) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/hea0001309 · Cited by 23
Racial Disparities in Neighborhood Arrest Rates during the COVID-19 Pandemic
Jahn, J. L., Simes, J. T., Cowger, T. L., & Davis, B. A. (2022) · Journal of urban health · doi:10.1007/s11524-021-00598-z · Cited by 20
“Fatal police encounters are a major cause of death among Black men [20], and these incidents also likely have “spillover” effects for residents of surrounding areas [21, 22].”
BackgroundLay theories about collective power in the context of racial oppression
Twali, M. S., Overstreet, N. M., & Vollhardt, J. R. (2023) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.2951 · Cited by 22
Officer diversity may reduce Black Americans’ fear of the police
Pickett, J. T., Graham, A., Nix, J., & Cullen, F. T. (2023) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12360 · Cited by 24
Tip of the iceberg: Measuring racial discrimination in studies of health
Cuevas, A. G., & Boen, C. (2021) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.3047 · Cited by 22
“Racialized disparities in policing and incarceration–which stem from structural discrimination across institutional spheres–are linked to racial inequities in health and mortality (Boen, 2020; Edwards et al., 2019; Sewell, 2017) in ways that do not depend on individual reports or perceptions of discrimination.”
BackgroundKiang, M., & Tsai, A. (2021) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.04.018 · Cited by 14
Neck‐restraint bans, law enforcement officer unions, and police killings
Beck, B., Antonelli, J., & LaScala‐Gruenewald, A. (2024) · Criminology & Public Policy · doi:10.1111/1745-9133.12658 · Cited by 20
Seto, C. H.-F., Schmidgall, D. K., & Perry, S. L. (2024) · Sociological Quarterly · doi:10.1080/00380253.2024.2435445 · Cited by 20
Facilitating police reform: Body cameras, police-involved homicides, and law enforcement outcomes
Kim, T.-H. (2025) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2025.105424 · Cited by 35
Cognitive Impairment in Older Incarcerated Males: Education and Race Considerations
Perez, A., Manning, K. J., Powell, W., & Barry, L. C. (2021) · American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jagp.2021.05.014 · Cited by 20
Dai, H. D., Thiel, G. E., & Hafer, D. (2023) · Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2023.107811 · Cited by 20
Chang-Sing, E., Smith, C. M., Gagliardi, J. P., Cramer, L. D., Robinson, L., Shah, D., Brinker, M., Jivalagian, P., Hu, Y. H., Turner, N., et al. (2024) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.0098 · Cited by 20
Leadership Matters: Police Chief Race and Fatal Shootings by Police Officers
Wu, S. (2020) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/ssqu.12900 · Cited by 20
“Edwards et al. (2019) show that age and race are significant factors in determining the risk of being killed by police. Specifically, individuals between the ages of 20 and 35 have the highest risk of all different age groups. They also find that Blacks, Latinos, and Native Americans are significantly more likely to b…”
BackgroundInfluentialA Macrolevel Study of Police Killings at the Intersection of Race, Ethnicity, and Gender
Gaston, S., Fernandes, A. D., & DeShay, R. A. (2020) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0011128720977444 · Cited by 22
“Indeed, research suggests that police violence is a leading cause of death for young Black men (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundFighting for America's Paradise: The Struggle against Structural Racism
Hardeman, R. R., Hardeman-Jones, S. L., & Medina, E. (2021) · Journal of Health Politics Policy and Law · doi:10.1215/03616878-8970767 · Cited by 20
“Police violence is the leading cause of death for young Black men (Edwards et al. 2019).”
BackgroundExecutions and Police Conflicts Involving Children, Adolescents and Young Adults
Johnson, T. J., & Wright, J. L. (2021) · Pediatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2020.12.012 · Cited by 21
Hoofnagle, M. H., Mubang, R. N., Joseph, D. K., Joseph, B. A., Christmas, A. B., & Zakrison, T. L. (2020) · Annals of Surgery · doi:10.1097/sla.0000000000004430 · Cited by 19
“approaches an astounding 1:1000 lifetime risk of death from police, and is a leading cause of death in young African American men.(2) The United States stands apart from other OECD countries when it comes to police violence, with rates of death from police 5 times higher than Canada and 90 times higher than in the UK,…”
BackgroundThe impact of racism on emergency health care workers
Kaltiso, S. O., Seitz, R. M., Zdradzinski, M. J., Moran, T. P., Heron, S., Robertson, J., & Lall, M. D. (2021) · Academic Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1111/acem.14347 · Cited by 20
Marsh, L. T. S., & Walker, L. (2022) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/01614681221086444 · Cited by 24
“A study of the risk of being killed by police use-of-force in the United States by age, ethnicity, and gender found that police useof-force was the sixth leading cause of death for young Black men (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundConcentrated incarceration and the public-housing-to-prison pipeline in New York City neighborhoods
Holder, J., Calaff, I., Maricque, B., & Tran, V. C. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2123201119 · Cited by 20
“One unintended consequence of such collaborations, however, is the hyperpolicing and the hypersurveillance of public housing residents within and beyond NYCHA developments, with potentially lethal consequences for Black and Hispanic NYCHA residents including emotional trauma, social isolation, physical injuries, displ…”
BackgroundLimantė, A. (2023) · Nordic Journal of Human Rights · doi:10.1080/18918131.2023.2277581 · Cited by 30
Arseniev‐Koehler, A., Foster, J. G., Mays, V. M., Chang, K.-W., & Cochran, S. D. (2021) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2021.306312 · Cited by 18
Change in distress about police brutality and substance use among young people, 2017–2020
Mattingly, D. T., Howard, L. C., Krueger, E. A., Fleischer, N. L., Halbert, C. H., & Leventhal, A. M. (2022) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2022.109530 · Cited by 18
Careers in Criminalization: Reentry, Recidivism, and Repeated Incarceration
Western, B., & Harding, D. J. (2022) · Crime and justice · doi:10.1086/721742 · Cited by 20
Police, courts, and corrections: Experiences of procedural injustice among Black adults.
Martinez, A., Swaner, R., Ramdath, C., & Carey, K. K. (2022) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12631 · Cited by 17
Health Equity and the Impact of Racism on Adolescent Health
Coyne-Beasley, T. D., Hill, S. V., Miller, E. P., & Svetaz, M. V. (2023) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2022-057267f · Cited by 17
Phantom Pains: The Effect of Police Killings of Black Americans on Black British Attitudes
Laniyonu, A. (2021) · British Journal of Political Science · doi:10.1017/s0007123421000557 · Cited by 20
“The rate of fatal police shootings of black persons, for example, is several times higher in the United States than it is in Canada or the UK (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019; Independent Office for Police Conduct 2018; Marcoux and Nicholson 2018).”
BackgroundNajdowski, C. J., & Goff, P. A. (2021) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/sipr.12083 · Cited by 19
Boehme, H. M., Kaminski, R. J., & Nolan, M. S. (2022) · Urban Science · doi:10.3390/urbansci6010016 · Cited by 16
Friedman, S. R., Williams, L. D., Jordan, A. E., Walters, S. M., Perlman, D. C., Mateu‐Gelabert, P., Nikolopoulos, G. K., Khan, M. R., Peprah, E. K., & Ezell, J. M. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19127453 · Cited by 17
“Racial and ethnic disparities in health and disease among the population as a whole long predated HIV and include differential rates of tuberculosis [14], syphilis and other sexually transmitted infections [15,16], cancer [17], diabetes [18], cardiovascular and respiratory diseases [19], obesity [18], fatal and nonfat…”
BackgroundSiegel, M., Poulson, M. R., Sangar, R., & Jay, J. S. (2021) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-020-09307-y · Cited by 23
Police violence reduces trust in the police among Black residents
Ben-Menachem, J., & Torrats‐Espinosa, G. (2024) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0308487 · Cited by 21
Advancing the Scientific Study of Structural Racism: Concepts, Measures, and Methods
Brown, T. H., Homan, P., & Ray, V. E. (2025) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-090924-021305 · Cited by 20
Responding to Acute Mental Health Crises in Black Youth: Is It Safe to Call 911?
Ramasamy, R., Thompson, A. D., & Simmons, S. (2022) · Community Mental Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10597-022-00980-4 · Cited by 19
“5% of all deaths among white males in the same age range (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialMcLeroy, A. M., & Wang, Y. C. (2023) · Journal of Adolescent Research · doi:10.1177/07435584221144975 · Cited by 17
“…(Lurigio et al., 2009), interrogations (Crutchfield et al., 2012), discrimination (Weitzer & Tuch, 2006), physical assault (Friedman et al., 2004; Weitzer & Tuch, 2006), and murder (Edwards et al., 2019; Vitale, 2017) in interactions with law enforcement officers at higher rates than White youth.”
BackgroundThe Scientific Shortcomings of Postcolonial Theory
Felsch, M. (2023) · International Studies · doi:10.1177/00208817221142485 · Cited by 16
Voting for Law and Order: Evidence From a Survey Experiment in Mexico
Ventura, T., Ley, S., & Cantú, F. (2023) · Comparative Political Studies · doi:10.1177/00104140231169035 · Cited by 16
“The fact that respondents who know more victims of crime also reported knowing more victims of police violence con fi rms previous evidence of speci fi c social groups being simultaneously under-protected and over-policed (Edwards et al., 2019; Gelman & Hill, 2007; Mummolo, 2018).”
BackgroundDifferences in Perceptions of Gun-Related Safety by Race and Gun Ownership in the United States
Ward, J. A., Uzzi, M., Hudson, T., et al. (2023) · The Journal of Law Medicine & Ethics · doi:10.1017/jme.2023.38 · Cited by 16
“Education Less than High School 92 (5) 34 (4) 0.”
Detecting disparities in police deployments using dashcam data
Franchi, M., Zamfirescu-Pereira, J. D., Ju, W. G., & Pierson, E. (2023) · ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (FAccT) · doi:10.1145/3593013.3594020 · Cited by 17
“Work also quantifies police misconduct [31]; use of force [25]; police killings [21]; and downstream effects of police violence [1].”
BackgroundAnalyzing Alternative Behavioral Crisis Response Models in the U.S.
Miranda, L. A. G., Shetty, A., & Ehlke, D. (2023) · Journal of Community Health · doi:10.1007/s10900-023-01299-1 · Cited by 25
“The risk of suffering an injury or dying at the hands of police officers is even higher when individuals are people of color, and especially higher if they are black men [ 8 ].”
Tregle, B., Nix, J., & Pickett, J. T. (2020) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2020.1821086 · Cited by 18
“In recent years there has been substantial academic and political debate over the (implicit or explicit) role of citizen race in o cers’ decision-making – especially regarding the use of deadly force (Edwards et al., 2019; Go et al., 2016; James et al., 2016; Nix et al., 2017; Ross, 2015).”
BackgroundPolice stops and adolescent sleep problems: findings from the UK millennium cohort study
Jackson, D. B., & Testa, A. M. (2022) · Journal of Sleep Research · doi:10.1111/jsr.13585 · Cited by 16
Police Obligations to Aggressors with Mental Illness
Jones, B. (2023) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/726972 · Cited by 14
“Black Americans live under conditions of vulnerability where they are more likely to be harmed by police (Mummolo 2018; Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019; Nix and Shjarback 2021).”
BackgroundSaraiya, T. C., Bauer, A. G., Banks, D. E., Brown, D. G., Jarnecke, A. M., Ebrahimi, C. T., & Bernard, D. L. (2025) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2025.118090 · Cited by 22
“Although there is overlap between vicariously viewing violent media exposure and police brutality, police brutality is important to distinguish because of the systemic engagement of violence towards specific communities that are associated with far-reaching communal effects (Edwards et al., 2019).”
Bush, A. A. (2021) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000004358 · Cited by 15
Bledsoe, A. (2021) · Annals of the American Association of Geographers · doi:10.1080/24694452.2021.1963657 · Cited by 15
Policing White Supremacy: Asymmetry and Inequality in Protest Control
Cunningham, D. (2022) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spac010 · Cited by 15
Jeter, F., & Melendez, J. (2022) · Impacting Education Journal on Transforming Professional Practice · doi:10.5195/ie.2022.200 · Cited by 19
“Black men face a 1 in 1000 chance of being murdered by the police (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialNouri, S. S., Quinn, M., Doyle, B. N., et al. (2023) · Journal of General Internal Medicine · doi:10.1007/s11606-023-08134-2 · Cited by 15
Police Killings and Municipal Reliance on Fine-and-Fee Revenue
Beck, B. (2023) · RSF · doi:10.7758/rsf.2023.9.2.07 · Cited by 12
“It is among the most accurate sources of data on police killings (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019; Campbell, Nix, and Ma-guire 2018; Feldman et al. 2017; Finch et al. 2019).”
BackgroundMethodThe Next Generation of Clinical-Psychological Science: Moving Toward Anti-Racism
Rodriguez-Seijas, C. A., McClendon, J., Wendt, D. C., Novacek, D. M., Ebalu, T. I., Hallion, L. S., Hassan, N. Y., Huson, K., Spielmans, G. I., Folk, J. B., et al. (2023) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026231156545 · Cited by 15
“Apart from police killings that disproportionately threaten the lives of Black Americans and other people of color (F. Edwards et al., 2019; C. T. Ross et al., 2021), racial and ethnic minoritized (i.e., people racialized as non-White) groups face disproportionate and increasing stigma, prejudice,…”
BackgroundPetteway, R. J. (2021) · Health Promotion Practice · doi:10.1177/1524839921999048 · Cited by 17
End the use of “excited delirium” as a cause of death in police custody
Saadi, A., Naples-Mitchell, J., Bhatia, B. D. S., et al. (2022) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(22)00410-x · Cited by 15
Davis, B. A., Arcaya, M. C., Williams, D. R., & Krieger, N. (2023) · Health and Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2023.102990 · Cited by 12
Nkwata, A. K., Zhang, M., Song, X., Giordani, B., & Ezeamama, A. E. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18031358 · Cited by 17
The American Racial Divide in Fear of the PolicePreprint
Pickett, J. T., Graham, A., & Cullen, F. T. (2021) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/9hwv7 · Cited by 15
The racialized patterns of police violence: The critical importance of research as praxis
Durán, R. J., & Shroulote‐Durán, C. M. (2021) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.12912 · Cited by 15
Rapid saccadic categorization of other-race faces
de Lissa, P., Sokhn, N., Lasrado, S., et al. (2021) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/jov.21.12.1 · Cited by 14
Gonzalez, S. M., & Deckard, F. M. (2022) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spac043 · Cited by 19
Stadeli, K. M., Sonett, D., Conrick, K. M., Moore, M., Riesenberg, M., Bulger, E. M., Meischke, H. W., & Vavilala, M. S. (2023) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.53364 · Cited by 15
Exposing and dismantling White culture in public administration
Love, J. M., & Stout, M. (2023) · Administrative Theory & Praxis · doi:10.1080/10841806.2023.2234245 · Cited by 15
“Their communities are over-policed, individuals are racially pro-filed (Headley, 2020), and encounters with police are more likely to be fatal (Edwards et al., 2019; Menifield et al., 2019).”
BackgroundJudson, J., Orakwue, K., & Alang, S. (2024) · SSM - Qualitative Research in Health · doi:10.1016/j.ssmqr.2024.100470 · Cited by 14
Policing’s New Vulnerability Re-Envisioning Local Accountability in an Era of Global Outrage
Goldsmith, A. J., & McLaughlin, E. (2021) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azab073 · Cited by 15
The Need for a Canadian Database of Police Use-of-Force Incidents
Bennell, C., Brown, A. S., Jenkins, B., Khanizadeh, A., MacIsaac, A., & Semple, T. (2021) · Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice/La Revue canadienne de criminologie et de justice pénale · doi:10.3138/cjccj.2021-0022 · Cited by 14
Meza, J. I., Bondoc, C., Keshav, N., Bosco, J., & Barnert, E. (2023) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-022-09696-8 · Cited by 14
“Given that 1 in 1,000 African-American males can expect to be killed by police in their lifetime (Edwards et al., 2019) and that African-American youth are more likely to die by firearm homicide (Bottiani et al.”
BackgroundThe Background and repercussions of the George Floyd case
Christián, L., Erdős, Á., & Háló, G. (2022) · Cogent Social Sciences · doi:10.1080/23311886.2022.2082094 · Cited by 14
“One of the stated reasons for the mass protests after the event we are examining was also the statistically proven conclusion that the risk of death resulting directly from police violence is extremely high among non-white citizens (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundOlma, J., Sutter, C., & Sülzenbrück, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1335892 · Cited by 19
“On the other hand, male suspects are much more likely to experience use of force or to be shot than female suspects (Edwards et al., 2019; Ba et al., 2021) and that even regardless of the police officer’s gender (Wright and Headley, 2020).”
BackgroundSantiago, A. M., & Ivery, J. M. (2020) · Journal of Community Practice · doi:10.1080/10705422.2020.1823672 · Cited by 14
Metadata
- Authors
- Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M.
- Affiliations
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Edwards, Frank
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2019-08-05
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 34
- Pages
- 16793-16798
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC6708348
- OpenAlex
- W2965198355
- Cited by
- 916
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 108 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 151 · 2022: 188 · 2021: 161 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 467.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- police use of force, racial disparities, age-specific risk, sex differences, African American men, Hispanic men, Hispanic women, young men of color, causes of death
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Death, Ethnicity, Female, Humans, Male, Risk, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Police, Racial Groups, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-29, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-29 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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