The DOI matches its Crossref record; 58 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 25 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
We use data on police-involved deaths to estimate how the risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States varies across social groups. We estimate the lifetime and age-specific risks of being killed by police by race and sex. We also provide estimates of the proportion of all deaths accounted for by police use of force. We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course. The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women. Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups. For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.
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Claims the paper makes
44 Own result · 5 Own method · 4 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 4 No basis given · 3 Partly supported · 2 Not checked yet · 2 Own interpretation · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Unofficial media-based methods provide more comprehensive information on police violence than do the limited official data currently available (4,33,34).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Research Strategy and Key Findings
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [4] 4. N. Krieger, J. T. Chen, P. D. Waterman, M. V. Kiang, J. Feldman, Police killings and police deaths are public health data and can be counted. PLoS Med. 12, e1001915 (2015). source
The Summary Points report that The Guardian’s unofficial count of people killed by police was twice the number expected from FBI estimates. “Counting for Accountability” says official mortality data likely underreport police killings and lack timely, detailed reporting. The comparison supports the claim for lethal police violence; the paper does not assess nonlethal incidents. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [33] 33. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Quantifying underreporting of law- enforcement-related deaths in United States vital statistics and news-media-based data sources: A capture -recapture analysis. PLoS Med. 14, e1002399 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusions and the section ‘Estimates of the number of US law-enforcement-related deaths in 2015’ show that the media-based source The Counted recorded substantially more law-enforcement-related deaths than the official NVSS. The paper studies deaths, however, not police violence generally or nonfatal incidents, so it supports the comparison only for fatal cases. Page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While a substantial body of evidence shows that people of color, especially African Americans, are at greater risk for experiencing criminal justice contact and police-involved harm than are whites (14-19)”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. R. Kramer, B. Remster, Stop, frisk, and assault? Racial disparities in police use of force during investigatory stops. Law Soc. Rev. 52, 960-993 (2018). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] 15. R. Brame, M. G. Turner, R. Paternoster, S. D. Bushway, Cumulative prevalence of arrest from ages 8 to 23 in a national sample. Pediatrics 129, 21-27 (2012). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [16] 16. B. Pettit, B. Western, Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69, 151-169 (2004). source
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract says people of color face greater police-involved harm than White people and reports higher police-homicide risk for Black and Latino men than for White men. The paper does not establish the separate claim that people of color face greater risk of criminal justice contact generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [18] 18. A. C. Mooney, S. McConville, A. J. Rappaport, R. Y. Hsia, Association of legal inter- vention injuries with race and ethnicity among patients treated in emergency departments in California. JAMA Network Open 1, e182150-e182150 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report substantially more legal-intervention injuries per capita among Black than white individuals, and the Discussion links much of that difference to higher arrest rates among Black individuals. The paper does not establish greater criminal-justice contact and police-involved harm for people of color generally: it reports substantially lower injury rates for Asian/Pacific Islander individuals and lower injuries per arrest for Hispanic individuals than for white individuals. Its injury findings concern California emergency-department patients, not all forms of police-involved harm. (LLM, conf=0.87)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] 19. D. Knox, W. Lowe, J. Mummolo, The bias is built in: How administrative records mask racially biased policing. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3336338 (April 26, 2019). source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black women are about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than are white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“This ranks police use of force as one of the leading causes of death for young men.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Risk for all groups peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y and declines with age.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black men are about 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police over the life course than are white men.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women's risk of being killed by police use of force is about an order of magnitude lower than men's risk at all ages”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Between the ages of 25 y and 29 y, black men are killed by police at a rate between 2.8 and 4.1 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Asian/Pacific Islander men are killed by police at a rate between 0.3 and 0.6 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.05% of all deaths of Asian/Pacific Islander women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While the methods used in this paper allow for nationally precise age-, race-, and gender-specific mortality estimates, they may mask important subnational variation and changes in risk over time (17,36).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Methods acknowledge that states grouped within the same Census division differ, supporting the concern that geographic grouping may obscure subnational variation. The paper uses data spanning 2012 to early 2018, but the passages do not assess changes in risk over time or say that the methods mask them. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not matchedcites [36] 36. R. E Morgan, G. Kena, Criminal victimization, 2016 (NCJ, 251150, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, DC, 2017).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Among all groups, black men and boys face the highest lifetime risk of being killed by police.”
- Also stated in: § Results · hedged
“Our models predict that about 1 in 1,000 black men and boys will be killed by police over the life course (96 [77, 120] per 100,000).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We estimate that over the life course, at levels of risk similar to those observed between 2013 and 2018, about 52 [39,68] (90% uncertainty interval) of every 100,000 men and boys in the United States will be killed by police use of force over the life course, and about 3 [1.5, 4.5] of every 100,000 women and girls will be killed by police over the life course.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, this ratio is strongly correlated with age and race and is starkly unequal across racial groups.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.16% of all deaths of Latina women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both Asian/Pacific Islander men and women are more than 50% less likely to be killed by police than are white men and women, respectively.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police use of force accounts for 0.05% of all male deaths in the United States and 0.003% of all female deaths”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.11% of all deaths of white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Racially unequal exposure to the risk of state violence has profound consequences for public health, democracy, and racial stratification (5,(7)(8)(9)11).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites (5,(7)(8)(9)11)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Prior research suggests that despite high contemporary rates, the risk of being killed by police was higher in decades past (37).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] 37. C. T. Ross, A multi-level Bayesian analysis of racial bias in police shootings at the county-level in the United States, 2011 -2014. PLoS One 10, e0141854 (2015). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The meaning of race, age, and gender for police violence emerges in the interactions between how officers perceive an individual's identity and the salience of these classifications for perceptions of criminality, belonging, and dangerousness (1,10,25,39).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] 1. S. Alang, D. McAlpine, E. McCreedy, R. Hardeman, Police brutality and black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am. J. Public Health 107, 662-665 (2017). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] 10. K. G. Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2011). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [25] 25. J. Legewie, M. Schaeffer, Contested boundaries: Explaining where ethnoracial diversity provokes neighborhood conflict. Am. J. Sociol. 122, 125-161 (2016). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] 39. E. P. Monk, The cost of color: Skin color, discrimination, and health among African- Americans. Am. J. Sociol. 121, 396-444 (2015). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43,44).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] 43. L. W. Sherman, Reducing fatal police shootings as system crashes: Research, theory, and practice. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1, 421-449 (2018).
- Not matchedcites [44] 44. R. Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2007).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police violence is a leading cause of death for young men, and young men of color face exceptionally high risk of being killed by police.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“FE provides more comprehensive data on police-involved deaths than do official mortality files (34), has a broader scope than similar unofficial efforts to document deaths, and has been endorsed as a sound source of data by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (47).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [47] 47. National Center for Health Statistics, Multiple cause of death data, 2000 -2017. https://www.nber.org/data/vital-statistics-mortality-data-multiple-cause-of-death. html. Accessed 25 January 2019.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“List- wise deletion of missing cases unrealistically understates uncertainty in our parameter estimates and negatively biases mortality risk estimates (SI Appendix, Fig. S8).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
“with the central assumption that risk profiles observed between 2013 and 2018 remain stable”
“with the key assumption that underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed levels throughout the life course”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“If this pattern holds true nationwide, it means we have underestimated the extent of racial disparities in police use of deadly force based on the racial makeup of the population [2, 3, 26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Prior research suggests the risk of being killed by police is highest for all racial groups between the ages of 20 and 35 [26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
In the citing paper
“The evidence is mixed as to whether CITs are effective at preventing police violence (80, 81).”
From Structural Racism and Suicide Prevention for Ethnoracially Minoritized Youth: A Conceptual Framework and Illustration Across Systems (2022) · cites this paper as [80]
Citations
Cites
mice: Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations in R
Buuren, S. V., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v045.i03 · Cited by 13,870
(2010) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 6,037
Punishment and inequality in America
Joseph, M. (2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-4178 · Cited by 2,066
Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California
Mobley, A. (2008) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.1177/009430610803700238 · Cited by 1,851 · cited 1×
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43, 44).”
BackgroundDemography, Measuring and Modeling Population Processes
Véron, J., Preston, S. H., Heuveline, P., & Guillot, M. (2002) · Population · doi:10.2307/1535065 · Cited by 1,709
Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration
Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240406900201 · Cited by 1,499
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“Black men have a 1 in 1000 lifetime chance of being killed by the police, which is 2.5 times the risk of White men [2].”
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Schwebel, C., & Johnson, D. K. N. (2025) · Journal of Economics Race and Policy · doi:10.1007/s41996-025-00175-5
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León-Moreta, A., & Fayemiro, O. (2025) · Urban Affairs Review · doi:10.1177/10780874251364205
“Edwards, Lee, and Esposito (2019) suggest signi fi cant racial disparities in police-involved shoot-ings.”
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Ray, K. F., Jeffrey, C. E., Armstrong, K. E., & Watkins, L. G. (2025) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/00110000251371086
“Although this increase in suicidality did not signi fi cantly vary across racial groups, concern is ampli fi ed for Black Americans who are most likely to experience victimization and imprisonment by police than other racial groups (DeVylder et al., 2017; Edwards et al., 2019).”
Carpan, C. (2025) · Theoria · doi:10.1111/theo.70038
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Gillum, T. L., Sheffield, A., Hampton, C. J., et al. (2025) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-025-02696-z
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Fatal Police Shootings and Community Health in the United States: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study
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“…area is expanding, to our knowledge, few studies have investigated the association between fatal police shootings and collective health outcomes throughout whole neighborhoods on a nationwide scale in the U.S. (Lett et al., 2021; DeAngelis, 2021; Edwards et al., 2019; Venkataramani et al., 2024).”
Revamping the Police: A Trust-Based Approach to Serving the U.S. Community
Reinsch, R. W., & Xiu, L. (2025) · Public Integrity · doi:10.1080/10999922.2025.2584743
Thompson, A. J., Wilson, T., & Behlendorf, B. (2025) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.70016
Douglass, L. L., & Threlkeld, A. D. (2022) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-64802-723-920251026
Continuous Traumatic Stress and Social Justice in Counselor Education
Adoma, J. Q. (2022) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-64802-723-920251020
Why Do We Have Police Killings?
Causadias, J. M. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009099936.008
Causadias, J. M. (2025) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009099936.007
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Understanding the Relationship Between Direct and Vicarious Police Contact and “The Talk”
Jackson, A. N., Wiley, S. A., & Wilson, B. L. (2025) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x251393409
Losee, J. E., Higginbotham, G. D., Pogge, G. C., Kerner, L., & Shepperd, J. A. (2025) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.70091
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Fortier, C. (2021) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-64802-598-320251009
Voices from the Sidelines: Black Women’s Experiences of Police Use of Excessive Force
Harris, M. G., Fields, L. N., & Motley, R. (2025) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984251397702
“Additionally, women between the ages of 18 and 29 are likely at an elevated risk of witnessing police use of excessive force because of their proximity to emerging adult Black men, who are signi fi cantly overrepresented in violent police encounters (Edwards et al., 2019).”
InfluentialKharchenko, Y., & Онуфрієва, Л. А. (2025) · Psychological Prospects Journal · doi:10.29038/2227-1376-2025-46-kha
Vicarious Exposure to Police Discrimination and Brutality, Concern, and Changes in Cigarette Smoking
Hacker, K. J., Hamilton-Moseley, K. R., Forde, A. T., Chen-Sankey, J. C., & Choi, K. (2025) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-025-02649-6
Lauve‐Moon, T. A. (2025) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-025-09478-6
“Edwards et al. (2019) find that Black men are 2.5 times more likely and Black women 1.4 times more likely to be killed by the police over the course of their life-time compared to their White counterparts.”
InfluentialLaniyonu, A., & Goff, P. A. (2021) · Figshare · doi:10.6084/m9.figshare.16800515
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Bernadeia, J. (2023) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/979-8-88730-221-820251006
Midgette, G., Lafree, G. D., Appleby, S. E. H., & Yang, M. H. (2025) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2025.2600357 · Cited by 1
“Research shows significant disparities in police-citizen interactions, with Black Americans disproportionately experiencing police use of force (Edwards et al., 2019; Fryer, 2019; Knox et al., 2020) and higher levels of fear, distrust, and anxiety in encounters with law enforcement (Brunson & Wade,…”
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Lareef, S., Premo, J. E., Bracy, D., Floyd, G. C., Nwokeji, U., O'Brien, C., Eugene, J. M., Moahi, K., Aye, J., Capponi, S., et al. (2026) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2024-069599
Dawson, A. J., Jipguep-Akhtar, M. C., Craig, M. O., & Wilkerson, P. D. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198945246.003.0026
Ngo, N. S., & Rising, J. (2026) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2026.118943
Wilson, B. L., Jackson, A. N., Lugo, A., Baxter, J., Randolph, N., & Tindall, J. (2026) · Journal of Family Communication · doi:10.1080/15267431.2026.2624523
“Though incidents of police violence are more frequent for young Black people, especially among men (Edwards et al., 2019), older Black people are still vulnerable to experiencing police contact (Thompson, 2022).”
Chillar, V. F., Lubell, M., Kaplun, K., & Sierra‐Arévalo, M. (2026) · Police Practice and Research · doi:10.1080/15614263.2025.2606822
Advancing Racial Justice in Criminal Justice Education: Modules for Cumulative Student Learning
Fox, N., & Lin, K. (2026) · Journal of Criminal Justice Education · doi:10.1080/10511253.2026.2619060
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Clemmons, A. (2026) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687261419420
“Eighteen to 29-year-olds comprise the nation ’ s largest share of homicide deaths by civilians and police (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2019; Edwards et al., 2019).”
Seo, D., Satterfield, N., Lee, S. H., Crabtree, C., & Cochran, N. (2026) · The Journal of Law Medicine & Ethics · doi:10.1017/jme.2026.10244
“Black people experience higher rates of incarceration for drug-related activities, 67 are more likely to have fatal interactions with police, 68 and make up a disproportionately large percentage of people on parole or probation.”
Reichert, N., Staller, M. S., Σαγανά, Ά., & Körner, S. (2026) · Police Practice and Research · doi:10.1080/15614263.2026.2635015
“Research confirms a heightened risk for individuals who are part of vulnerable populations (e.g., people with mental disorders) of being subjected to inappropriate use of force (e.g., Dukes & Kahn, 2017; Edwards et al., 2019; Feltes, 2023; Peeples, 2020).”
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Huang, Z., Beck, B., & Antonelli, J. (2026) · Journal of the Royal Statistical Society Series A (Statistics in Society) · doi:10.1093/jrsssa/qnag013
Beyond Deflection: Accountability Frames in Opinion Columns*
Potter, D. A. (2026) · Sociological Inquiry · doi:10.1111/soin.70049
Schmitz, L., & Struck, J. (2026) · The Police Journal Theory Practice and Principles · doi:10.1177/0032258x261431581
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April, K., & Cole, L. M. (2026) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687261426438
Neil, R., Bushway, S. D., Schell, T. L., Morral, A. R., & Smart, R. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0333424 · Cited by 1
Broich, J. (2026) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781009627689.012
Zou, J., Hou, K., Xu, X., & Wang, Z. (2026) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0345523
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Bledsoe, B. N., & Butler, L. C. (2026) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-026-09903-5
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Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.003.0008
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Jones, B. (2026) · doi:10.1093/9780197823316.003.0009
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Artís, A. C. (2021) · doi:10.70675/ff61399czea3cz4f90zac7fz50c569f944c7
Onuzulike, U., Parlade, P., Zanders, S., & Butler, J. (2026) · Critical Studies in Media Communication · doi:10.1080/15295036.2026.2649764
“Edwards et al. (2019) reported that in the United States, police brutality is a leading cause of death among young Black men; approximately one in every 1,000 Black men will be slain by police.”
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Crawford, K. (2026) · IGI Global eBooks · doi:10.4018/979-8-3373-4297-9.ch008
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Mitchell, E., Waraich, R. K., Goldman, S. A., et al. (2026) · American Journal of Medical Quality · doi:10.1097/jmq.0000000000000305
A logic model for alternative response programs to guide public health research and practice
Fleming, P. J., Bahr, W. V., Brinkley‐Rubinstein, L., Lopez, W. D., Parks, A., MITCHELL, C. M., Kennedy, L., Luna, N. H., Thompkins, E., & Alang, S. (2026) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2026.119273 · Cited by 1
De-Policing as Reform? Police Tactics after Black Lives Matter’s 2020 Protests
Murgolo, E. (2026) · American Politics Research · doi:10.1177/1532673x261443520
“Policing in the U.S. has gone under increasing scrutiny in the last decade, as movements such as Black Lives Matter have shed light on how police pro fi ling and violence disproportionately affect racial minorities (Edwards et al., 2019; Knox et al., 2020).”
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Sharps, P. W., Robinson, K. N., & Speciale, A. M. (2026) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-032-06072-3_15
Curry, T. J. (2026) · Philosophy Compass · doi:10.1111/phc3.70087
“(Edwards et al. 2019: 16795) Although is it certainly true that both Black men and women are disproportionately killed by police, Blackness and maleness makes Black men more likely to be a direct target of police brutality and death.”
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Ivanich, J. (2026) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2607272123
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Habich, L., Najman, T., GREPL, L., et al. (2026) · Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2026.103167
Derff, P. L. (2026) · Déviance et Société · doi:10.3917/ds.501.0035
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“In some cases, retaining certain personal attributes can serve societal and individual goals—from improving healthcare [21] and workplace equity [10] to advancing research [4] and social justice [19].”
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“Police shooting vic-timization burdens certain subpopulations more than others — 52 of every 100,000 men and boys in the United States will be killed by police, compared to 3 out of every 100,000 women and girls [3].”
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Mezzapelle, J. L., Douglas, E. M., Hines, D. A., Lee, K. A., Russo, L. N., & Sabina, C. (2026) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-026-01131-z
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“For example, the risk of death after a police encounter in the U.S. is 2.5 times higher for African American/Black men compared to White men [6] and 1.4 times higher for African American/Black women compared to White women [7].”
InfluentialA Review of Relevant Theoretical Perspectives
Holochwost, S. J., Mills-Koonce, R., & Brown, E. D. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780198960683.003.0002
Steele, P. D. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190275662.003.0009
Steele, P. D. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190275662.002.0006
Steele, P. D. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190275662.003.0010
Legal Cases and Court Decisions Cited
Steele, P. D. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190275662.003.0011
Jones, A. R., Baker, B. A., Adeyemo, R., McKenley, C., Hanks, M. A., Avila, N., Washington, L., Jang, H. S., Chae, D. H., & Hunter, E. A. (2026) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-026-03066-z
Multivariate Analysis of Foster Care Placement
Steele, P. D. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190275662.005.0003
Characteristics of Child Sexual Abuse Episodes
Steele, P. D. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190275662.003.0005
Steele, P. D. (2026) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/9780190275662.002.0005
Metadata
- Authors
- Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M.
- Affiliations
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Edwards, Frank
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2019-08-05
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 34
- Pages
- 16793-16798
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC6708348
- OpenAlex
- W2965198355
- Cited by
- 916
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 108 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 151 · 2022: 188 · 2021: 161 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 467.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- police use of force, racial disparities, age-specific risk, sex differences, African American men, Hispanic men, Hispanic women, young men of color, causes of death
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Death, Ethnicity, Female, Humans, Male, Risk, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Police, Racial Groups, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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