The DOI matches its Crossref record; 58 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 25 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
We use data on police-involved deaths to estimate how the risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States varies across social groups. We estimate the lifetime and age-specific risks of being killed by police by race and sex. We also provide estimates of the proportion of all deaths accounted for by police use of force. We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course. The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women. Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups. For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.
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Claims the paper makes
44 Own result · 5 Own method · 4 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 4 No basis given · 3 Partly supported · 2 Not checked yet · 2 Own interpretation · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Unofficial media-based methods provide more comprehensive information on police violence than do the limited official data currently available (4,33,34).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Research Strategy and Key Findings
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [4] 4. N. Krieger, J. T. Chen, P. D. Waterman, M. V. Kiang, J. Feldman, Police killings and police deaths are public health data and can be counted. PLoS Med. 12, e1001915 (2015). source
The Summary Points report that The Guardian’s unofficial count of people killed by police was twice the number expected from FBI estimates. “Counting for Accountability” says official mortality data likely underreport police killings and lack timely, detailed reporting. The comparison supports the claim for lethal police violence; the paper does not assess nonlethal incidents. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [33] 33. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Quantifying underreporting of law- enforcement-related deaths in United States vital statistics and news-media-based data sources: A capture -recapture analysis. PLoS Med. 14, e1002399 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusions and the section ‘Estimates of the number of US law-enforcement-related deaths in 2015’ show that the media-based source The Counted recorded substantially more law-enforcement-related deaths than the official NVSS. The paper studies deaths, however, not police violence generally or nonfatal incidents, so it supports the comparison only for fatal cases. Page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While a substantial body of evidence shows that people of color, especially African Americans, are at greater risk for experiencing criminal justice contact and police-involved harm than are whites (14-19)”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. R. Kramer, B. Remster, Stop, frisk, and assault? Racial disparities in police use of force during investigatory stops. Law Soc. Rev. 52, 960-993 (2018). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] 15. R. Brame, M. G. Turner, R. Paternoster, S. D. Bushway, Cumulative prevalence of arrest from ages 8 to 23 in a national sample. Pediatrics 129, 21-27 (2012). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [16] 16. B. Pettit, B. Western, Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69, 151-169 (2004). source
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract says people of color face greater police-involved harm than White people and reports higher police-homicide risk for Black and Latino men than for White men. The paper does not establish the separate claim that people of color face greater risk of criminal justice contact generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [18] 18. A. C. Mooney, S. McConville, A. J. Rappaport, R. Y. Hsia, Association of legal inter- vention injuries with race and ethnicity among patients treated in emergency departments in California. JAMA Network Open 1, e182150-e182150 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report substantially more legal-intervention injuries per capita among Black than white individuals, and the Discussion links much of that difference to higher arrest rates among Black individuals. The paper does not establish greater criminal-justice contact and police-involved harm for people of color generally: it reports substantially lower injury rates for Asian/Pacific Islander individuals and lower injuries per arrest for Hispanic individuals than for white individuals. Its injury findings concern California emergency-department patients, not all forms of police-involved harm. (LLM, conf=0.87)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] 19. D. Knox, W. Lowe, J. Mummolo, The bias is built in: How administrative records mask racially biased policing. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3336338 (April 26, 2019). source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black women are about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than are white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“This ranks police use of force as one of the leading causes of death for young men.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Risk for all groups peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y and declines with age.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black men are about 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police over the life course than are white men.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women's risk of being killed by police use of force is about an order of magnitude lower than men's risk at all ages”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Between the ages of 25 y and 29 y, black men are killed by police at a rate between 2.8 and 4.1 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Asian/Pacific Islander men are killed by police at a rate between 0.3 and 0.6 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.05% of all deaths of Asian/Pacific Islander women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While the methods used in this paper allow for nationally precise age-, race-, and gender-specific mortality estimates, they may mask important subnational variation and changes in risk over time (17,36).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Methods acknowledge that states grouped within the same Census division differ, supporting the concern that geographic grouping may obscure subnational variation. The paper uses data spanning 2012 to early 2018, but the passages do not assess changes in risk over time or say that the methods mask them. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not matchedcites [36] 36. R. E Morgan, G. Kena, Criminal victimization, 2016 (NCJ, 251150, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, DC, 2017).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Among all groups, black men and boys face the highest lifetime risk of being killed by police.”
- Also stated in: § Results · hedged
“Our models predict that about 1 in 1,000 black men and boys will be killed by police over the life course (96 [77, 120] per 100,000).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We estimate that over the life course, at levels of risk similar to those observed between 2013 and 2018, about 52 [39,68] (90% uncertainty interval) of every 100,000 men and boys in the United States will be killed by police use of force over the life course, and about 3 [1.5, 4.5] of every 100,000 women and girls will be killed by police over the life course.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, this ratio is strongly correlated with age and race and is starkly unequal across racial groups.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.16% of all deaths of Latina women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both Asian/Pacific Islander men and women are more than 50% less likely to be killed by police than are white men and women, respectively.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police use of force accounts for 0.05% of all male deaths in the United States and 0.003% of all female deaths”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.11% of all deaths of white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Racially unequal exposure to the risk of state violence has profound consequences for public health, democracy, and racial stratification (5,(7)(8)(9)11).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites (5,(7)(8)(9)11)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Prior research suggests that despite high contemporary rates, the risk of being killed by police was higher in decades past (37).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] 37. C. T. Ross, A multi-level Bayesian analysis of racial bias in police shootings at the county-level in the United States, 2011 -2014. PLoS One 10, e0141854 (2015). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The meaning of race, age, and gender for police violence emerges in the interactions between how officers perceive an individual's identity and the salience of these classifications for perceptions of criminality, belonging, and dangerousness (1,10,25,39).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] 1. S. Alang, D. McAlpine, E. McCreedy, R. Hardeman, Police brutality and black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am. J. Public Health 107, 662-665 (2017). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] 10. K. G. Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2011). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [25] 25. J. Legewie, M. Schaeffer, Contested boundaries: Explaining where ethnoracial diversity provokes neighborhood conflict. Am. J. Sociol. 122, 125-161 (2016). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] 39. E. P. Monk, The cost of color: Skin color, discrimination, and health among African- Americans. Am. J. Sociol. 121, 396-444 (2015). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43,44).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] 43. L. W. Sherman, Reducing fatal police shootings as system crashes: Research, theory, and practice. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1, 421-449 (2018).
- Not matchedcites [44] 44. R. Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2007).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police violence is a leading cause of death for young men, and young men of color face exceptionally high risk of being killed by police.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“FE provides more comprehensive data on police-involved deaths than do official mortality files (34), has a broader scope than similar unofficial efforts to document deaths, and has been endorsed as a sound source of data by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (47).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [47] 47. National Center for Health Statistics, Multiple cause of death data, 2000 -2017. https://www.nber.org/data/vital-statistics-mortality-data-multiple-cause-of-death. html. Accessed 25 January 2019.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“List- wise deletion of missing cases unrealistically understates uncertainty in our parameter estimates and negatively biases mortality risk estimates (SI Appendix, Fig. S8).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
“with the central assumption that risk profiles observed between 2013 and 2018 remain stable”
“with the key assumption that underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed levels throughout the life course”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“If this pattern holds true nationwide, it means we have underestimated the extent of racial disparities in police use of deadly force based on the racial makeup of the population [2, 3, 26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Prior research suggests the risk of being killed by police is highest for all racial groups between the ages of 20 and 35 [26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
In the citing paper
“The evidence is mixed as to whether CITs are effective at preventing police violence (80, 81).”
From Structural Racism and Suicide Prevention for Ethnoracially Minoritized Youth: A Conceptual Framework and Illustration Across Systems (2022) · cites this paper as [80]
Citations
Cites
mice: Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations in R
Buuren, S. V., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v045.i03 · Cited by 13,870
(2010) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 6,037
Punishment and inequality in America
Joseph, M. (2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-4178 · Cited by 2,066
Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California
Mobley, A. (2008) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.1177/009430610803700238 · Cited by 1,851 · cited 1×
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43, 44).”
BackgroundDemography, Measuring and Modeling Population Processes
Véron, J., Preston, S. H., Heuveline, P., & Guillot, M. (2002) · Population · doi:10.2307/1535065 · Cited by 1,709
Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration
Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240406900201 · Cited by 1,499
Rios, V. M. (2011) · New York University Press eBooks · doi:10.18574/nyu/9780814777114.001.0001 · Cited by 1,270
(2017) · Anarchist studies · Cited by 1,217
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Gelman, A., Fagan, J., & Kiss, A. (2007) · Journal of the American Statistical Association · doi:10.1198/016214506000001040 · Cited by 873
Research works printed but not linked: 3
- J. Soss, V. Weaver, Learning from Ferguson: Policing, race, and class in American politics. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 20, 565–591 (2017).
- A. S. Vitale, The End of Policing (Verso Books, New York, NY, 2017).
- T. Y. Rocha Beardall “Transactional policing: Reframing local police-community relations through the lens of police employment ” PhD thesis Cornell University Ithaca NY (2019).
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Items 701–800 of 933
Social Justice Implications for Black Men’s Health: Policing Black Bodies
Robinson, M. A. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-04994-1_13
“The Talk” Revisited: Expanding the Conversation with Black Males in Trauma
Beckett, K. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-04994-1_9
Racism as a Structural Determinant of Health
Evans, L. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199756797-0215
Black America bruised in black & blue
Jordan, A. (2021) · doi:10.17760/d20412677
Cultural and Contextual Factors of Infancy Through Early Childhood
(2022) · Springer Publishing Company eBooks · doi:10.1891/9780826182791.0004
An Anti-Oppressive Social Work Approach to Public Safety and Judicial Responses
Patricia, O., & Willison, J. S. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190076757.003.0005
Quick, L.-D., & Nobles, R. (2022) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-4128-2.ch010
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.002.0007
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.003.0006
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.005.0001
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.003.0007
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.002.0005
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.003.0002
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.003.0003
Richardson, A. V. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.002.0008
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.003.0005
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.003.0010
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.002.0009
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.003.0008
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.003.0004
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.002.0010
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.003.0009
A Model to Assess the Feasibility of 911 Call Diversion ProgramsPreprint
Midgette, G., Spreen, T. L., Porter, L. C., Reuter, P., & Hitchens, B. K. (2022) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/kct4y
Pathways to Preventing Fatal Police-Involved Shootings of People in Mental Health Crisis
Clifford, K. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-13013-7_12
Women and Racism in Kamala Harris’ Speeches: A Critical Discourse Analysis
Tsani, N. K., & Ratnadewi, D. (2022) · Linguists Journal of Linguistics and Language Teaching · doi:10.29300/ling.v8i1.5533
Cultural Humility in Hospital-Based Injury and Violence Prevention
Smith, R. N., Castater, C., & James, T. L. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-20357-2_3
Bad Things Keep Happening in Our Town
Pearson, F., Rodríguez‐Arroyo, S., & Gutiérrez, G. (2023) · Advances in librarianship · doi:10.1108/s0065-283020230000052014
Grell‐Brisk, M. (2023) · Journal of World-Systems Research · doi:10.5195/jwsr.2023.1179
Die Pandemie in der Pandemie von 2020: Eine spirituelle Perspektive
Audate, T. S. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-16508-5_28
Kharchenko, Y., & Kоmarnitska, L. (2023) · Collection of Research Papers Problems of Modern Psychology · doi:10.32626/2227-6246.2023-59.51-72
Buhl, S., Asbrock, F., Sibley, C. G., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/udxsc
Human Rights Methodologies in Minority Research
Workman, A., Griffin, P. M., & Liamputtong, P. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-96778-9_49-1
Insurrectionist Ethics, Moral Suasion, and Violent Protests for Poor Policing
Barnes, C. L. (2023) · African American philosophy and the African diaspora · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-16741-6_7
Osuna, A. I., Garcia, K., Fallik, S. W., et al. (2023) · Youth Justice · doi:10.1177/14732254231167339
“…injury, emotional harm, mental harm, and many others, which can leave juveniles who have been sexually victimized vulnerable to implicit and explicit biases in the criminal justice sys-tem (Edwards et al., 2019; Fallik, 2019; Reiman and Leighton, 2015; Roberts, 2007; Smith and Levinson, 2011).”
BackgroundBrückmann, R. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-04125-0_65-1
Zhang, X. (2023) · Genealogy · doi:10.3390/genealogy7030043 · Cited by 2
Psychological Study on the Functional State of a Patient with Ischemic Stroke
Kharchenko, Y., & Simko, A. (2023) · Collection of Research Papers Problems of Modern Psychology · doi:10.32626/2227-6246.2023-60.51-72
Graves, C. (2023) · ISU Red - Research and eData (Illinois State University) · doi:10.30707/etd2023.20230711063201480972.999977
Forney, S., & Mackie, J. F. (2023) · Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/pubmed/fdad128
The Impact of Marginalization on Relations With Law Enforcement and the Criminal Justice System
Brown, A. K. (2023) · Advances in religious and cultural studies (ARCS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-6684-3615-8.ch005
Owens, D. B. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4514757
The Social Layer of the ESGB Model
Guarnieri, L., & Lee‐Davies, L. (2023) · Palgrave studies in sustainability, environment and macroeconomics · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-31879-5_6
A Call for Change: The Social Construction of crime, accountability, and police reform.
Sims, M., null, N., null, N., null, N., null, N., & null, N. (2023) · doi:10.58809/toep5378
Jones, W. D. (2023) · Journal of Policy Practice and Research · doi:10.1007/s42972-023-00086-5
“For context, 1 in 1000 Black men can anticipate being killed by police (Edwards et al., 2019).”
InfluentialPainting a Diverse Picture of Fathers
Gallais, C. (2023) · Genders and sexualities in the social sciences · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-34132-8_7
Human Rights Methodologies in Minority Research
Workman, A., Griffin, P. M., & Liamputtong, P. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-25110-8_49
Felon re-enfranchisement, race, and arrestsPreprint
Epifanio, M., Leo, R. D., & Damioli, G. (2023) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/e37d2
Drakulich, K., Robles, J., Rodriguez‐Whitney, E., et al. (2022) · doi:10.21428/cb6ab371.a18081b6
When Truth Trumps Facts: Studies on Partisan Moral Flexibility in American PoliticsPreprint
Kim, M., Hahl, O., Poskanzer, E. J., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/4y28x
Buddhist principles that can inform social workers commitment to anti-racism and social justice
Chaney, C., Nicks, N., & Caldwell, C. (2023) · Journal of Religion & Spirituality in Social Work Social Thought · doi:10.1080/15426432.2023.2280822
Petteway, R. J. (2023) · Health Equity · doi:10.1089/heq.2023.0033
Psychoanalytical Analysis of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorders
Kharchenko, Y., & Kurytsia, D. (2023) · Collection of Research Papers Problems of Modern Psychology · doi:10.32626/2227-6246.2023-62.85-105
Ghetto Abolitionism: Racial Justice for the Twenty-First Century
Pierce, A. J. (2022) · Public Philosophy Journal · doi:10.59522/qrho2472
Михальчук, Н., Харченко, Є., Ivashkevych, E., et al. (2023) · Health & Education · doi:10.32782/health-2023.4.28
Terrorism-Induced Trauma and Corporate InnovationPreprint
Bhattacharya, D., Cheng, T. F., Chuang, M.-J., et al. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4788856
Robison, M., Robertson, L., & Joiner, T. E. (2024) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.13088
Motley, R., Williamson, E., Carver, L., et al. (2024) · doi:10.6017/ssw.rbvipl.rb003.kq1770
Brückmann, R. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-39686-2_65
The influence of face mask color on perceptions of African American and white men
Morris, L. A., Bazzini, D. G., Holden, C. J., et al. (2024) · Cognitive Processing · doi:10.1007/s10339-024-01196-y
Psychosemantics of Types of Military Stress of Combatants
Kharchenko, Y., & Онуфрієва, Л. А. (2024) · Collection of Research Papers Problems of Modern Psychology · doi:10.32626/2227-6246.2024-63.113-136
Supplementary materials for the analyses in chapters 2–6
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.005.0003
Corpus collection and methodology
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.005.0002
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.002.0003
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.002.0004
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.005.0001
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2022) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.002.0006
Gibbons, J., Beck, A. N., Finch, B. K., & Thomas, K. (2024) · Urban Affairs Review · doi:10.1177/10780874241259426
“The perceived danger of neighborhoods directly in fl uences the sense of risk that street of fi cers anticipate when dealing with suspects (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019; Fyfe 1980; Kania and Mackey 1977; Leslie, Frankenfeld, and Hattery 2022; Mesic et al. 2018; Nix et al. 2017; Ross 2015).”
InfluentialTrends in youth opinions about police agencies in the United States, 2017–2021
Mattingly, D. T., & Fleischer, N. L. (2024) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2024.100972
“Thus, it is no surprise that police exposure, violence, and related deaths differentially pattern by race and ethnicity (Crutchfield et al., 2012; Edwards et al., 2019; Jackson, 2021).”
Drakulich, K., & Pereira, C. (2024) · doi:10.21428/cb6ab371.c9175196
The Solidarity Sing-Along and the Ineptitude of Repression
Kearney, M. (2024) · Research in social movements, conflicts and change · doi:10.1108/s0163-786x20240000048007
THE ROLE OF STATES IN THE SUPERVISION OF HUMAN RIGHTS
Krivokapić, B. (2024) · MB University International Review · doi:10.61837/mbuir020124087k
Beardslee, W. R. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-51366-5_107
Bolkvadze, K., & Sümeghy, D. (2024) · Policing & Society · doi:10.1080/10439463.2024.2399103
A Patient-Centered Forensic Nursing Model of Care for Victims of Law Enforcement Violence
Anderson, M. R., Robinson, J. C., Glembocki, M. M., & Louden, E. I. (2024) · Health Equity · doi:10.1089/heq.2023.0270
Group Work with Boys and Young Men of Color
Gilgoff, J. N., Rosas, F. J. A., & Griffith, H. (2024) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197657928.003.0023
Lewis, D. F. (2024) · Sociology of Race and Ethnicity · doi:10.1177/23326492241285367
Outcomes in American Democracy
Hajnal, Z. L., Hutchings, V. L., & Lee, T. (2024) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108633352.015
Examining the Racial and Gendered Impacts of Police-Initiated Contacts on Help-Seeking
Zaykowski, H., & Massoudi, A. (2024) · Du Bois Review Social Science Research on Race · doi:10.1017/s1742058x2400016x
“Research shows that extensive personal and vicarious police contacts engender distrust and cynicism toward the law and law enforcement (Brunson and Miller, 2006b; Edwards et al., 2019; Rios 2011).”
Pilyavsky, M. (2024) · International e-Conference on Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.32591/coas.e-conf.10.23225p
Chukov, V. S. (2024) · International e-Conference on Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences · doi:10.32591/coas.e-conf.10.22211c · Cited by 1
Fix, R. L., Pan, A., & Hong, K. (2025) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2025.108143 · Cited by 1
Ramirez, M. (2021) · University of North Texas Digital Library (University of North Texas) · doi:10.12794/metadc1808401
Bodily Harm: The Health Consequences of Policing in the United States
Das, A. (2024) · PubMed · doi:10.15779/z38804xm28
Black Neighbors Matter: Officer Neighborhoods and Racial Differences in PolicingPreprint
Domènech-Arumí, G. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5092607
Legal Decision-Making Regarding Alleged Police Excessive Use of Force Incidents
Flick, C., Schweitzer, K. A., & Johnson, S. (2025) · Advances in psychology and law · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-82806-5_1
Habr, K., & Pullen-Blasnik, H. (2025) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231251328799
“In the United States, Black people are more likely to die from police violence than any other group (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019); Black people are 3.2 times more likely to be killed by police (Schwartz and Jahn 2020) and 1.6 times more likely to be killed while unarmed than white people…”
InfluentialAnderson, K. F., & Avent, T. M. (2025) · SN Social Sciences · doi:10.1007/s43545-025-01098-6
“This work has generally found that Black and Latino individuals are at greater risk of victimization by the police through both fatal and non-fatal police use of force (Alang et al. 2017; Buehler 2017; Correll et al. 2007; Edwards et al. 2018, 2019; Fryer Jr 2019).”
Unveiling the Power of Black Feminist Thought in Challenging U.S. Policing Methods
Jones, E., & Jean, C. (2025) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687251333806
“Aaliyah ’ s case is far from unique (Edwards et al., 2019; Hollingsheada, 2022); many such cases continue to be overshadowed due to news or social fatigue (Davenport, 2015), highlighting the necessity of the ongoing discourse regarding police conduct against Black individuals, particularly Black…”
How Antiracist Frameworks Can Transform Policing Procedures: A Qualitative Case Study
Moore, T. (2025) · Race and Justice · doi:10.1177/21533687251333805
“Edwards et al. (2019) found that police use of force is among the leading causes of death for Black men in the United States, occurring at a rate 2.5 times higher than for White men.”
InfluentialMaksuta, K. D. (2021) · Scholars Archive - University at Albany (University at Albany, State University of New York) · doi:10.54014/jxn2-6gvf
de Bourbon, S., Dao, M., Fuller, M. M., Armaline, W. T., Asplund, C. T., Kumar, R., DeSanto, D., Robinson, J., Sanderlin, D., & Worthen, M. (2025) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0325257 · Cited by 1
“Indeed, with police violence ranking sixth in the leading causes of death for young Black men, “public health-informed alternative responses programs” have emerged as a strategy to prevent harm, especially to marginalized community members, and to reduce health disparities [5,6].”
English, D., Robinson, T. A., Hoggard, L. S., Muchomba, F. M., WILLIAMS, S. Z., Cantor, J. C., Duberstein, P. R., & Millar, B. M. (2025) · Milbank Quarterly · doi:10.1111/1468-0009.70018
“Given research showing the negative health impacts of policing for Black communities, 4,5,23,26,31 our primary hypothesis was that police expenditures would be associated with increases in suicide and police-perpetrated killing for Black, but not White, residents.”
Mykhalchuk, N. O., Kharchenko, Y., Ivashkevych, E., et al. (2025) · Health & Education · doi:10.32782/health-2025.1.21
Getting Away with Murder: Obstacles to Police Accountability
Reed, W., Jajesnica, J., & Losey, H. (2025) · Virginia Tech Publishing eBooks · doi:10.21061/gettingawaywithmurder
O’Neill, L. (2025) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph22060945
Metadata
- Authors
- Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M.
- Affiliations
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Edwards, Frank
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2019-08-05
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 34
- Pages
- 16793-16798
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC6708348
- OpenAlex
- W2965198355
- Cited by
- 916
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 108 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 151 · 2022: 188 · 2021: 161 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 467.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- police use of force, racial disparities, age-specific risk, sex differences, African American men, Hispanic men, Hispanic women, young men of color, causes of death
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Death, Ethnicity, Female, Humans, Male, Risk, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Police, Racial Groups, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-29, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-29 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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