The DOI matches its Crossref record; 58 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 25 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
We use data on police-involved deaths to estimate how the risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States varies across social groups. We estimate the lifetime and age-specific risks of being killed by police by race and sex. We also provide estimates of the proportion of all deaths accounted for by police use of force. We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course. The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women. Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups. For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.
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Claims the paper makes
44 Own result · 5 Own method · 4 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 4 No basis given · 3 Partly supported · 2 Not checked yet · 2 Own interpretation · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Unofficial media-based methods provide more comprehensive information on police violence than do the limited official data currently available (4,33,34).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Research Strategy and Key Findings
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [4] 4. N. Krieger, J. T. Chen, P. D. Waterman, M. V. Kiang, J. Feldman, Police killings and police deaths are public health data and can be counted. PLoS Med. 12, e1001915 (2015). source
The Summary Points report that The Guardian’s unofficial count of people killed by police was twice the number expected from FBI estimates. “Counting for Accountability” says official mortality data likely underreport police killings and lack timely, detailed reporting. The comparison supports the claim for lethal police violence; the paper does not assess nonlethal incidents. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [33] 33. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Quantifying underreporting of law- enforcement-related deaths in United States vital statistics and news-media-based data sources: A capture -recapture analysis. PLoS Med. 14, e1002399 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusions and the section ‘Estimates of the number of US law-enforcement-related deaths in 2015’ show that the media-based source The Counted recorded substantially more law-enforcement-related deaths than the official NVSS. The paper studies deaths, however, not police violence generally or nonfatal incidents, so it supports the comparison only for fatal cases. Page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While a substantial body of evidence shows that people of color, especially African Americans, are at greater risk for experiencing criminal justice contact and police-involved harm than are whites (14-19)”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. R. Kramer, B. Remster, Stop, frisk, and assault? Racial disparities in police use of force during investigatory stops. Law Soc. Rev. 52, 960-993 (2018). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] 15. R. Brame, M. G. Turner, R. Paternoster, S. D. Bushway, Cumulative prevalence of arrest from ages 8 to 23 in a national sample. Pediatrics 129, 21-27 (2012). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [16] 16. B. Pettit, B. Western, Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69, 151-169 (2004). source
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract says people of color face greater police-involved harm than White people and reports higher police-homicide risk for Black and Latino men than for White men. The paper does not establish the separate claim that people of color face greater risk of criminal justice contact generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [18] 18. A. C. Mooney, S. McConville, A. J. Rappaport, R. Y. Hsia, Association of legal inter- vention injuries with race and ethnicity among patients treated in emergency departments in California. JAMA Network Open 1, e182150-e182150 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report substantially more legal-intervention injuries per capita among Black than white individuals, and the Discussion links much of that difference to higher arrest rates among Black individuals. The paper does not establish greater criminal-justice contact and police-involved harm for people of color generally: it reports substantially lower injury rates for Asian/Pacific Islander individuals and lower injuries per arrest for Hispanic individuals than for white individuals. Its injury findings concern California emergency-department patients, not all forms of police-involved harm. (LLM, conf=0.87)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] 19. D. Knox, W. Lowe, J. Mummolo, The bias is built in: How administrative records mask racially biased policing. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3336338 (April 26, 2019). source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black women are about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than are white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“This ranks police use of force as one of the leading causes of death for young men.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Risk for all groups peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y and declines with age.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black men are about 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police over the life course than are white men.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women's risk of being killed by police use of force is about an order of magnitude lower than men's risk at all ages”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Between the ages of 25 y and 29 y, black men are killed by police at a rate between 2.8 and 4.1 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Asian/Pacific Islander men are killed by police at a rate between 0.3 and 0.6 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.05% of all deaths of Asian/Pacific Islander women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While the methods used in this paper allow for nationally precise age-, race-, and gender-specific mortality estimates, they may mask important subnational variation and changes in risk over time (17,36).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Methods acknowledge that states grouped within the same Census division differ, supporting the concern that geographic grouping may obscure subnational variation. The paper uses data spanning 2012 to early 2018, but the passages do not assess changes in risk over time or say that the methods mask them. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not matchedcites [36] 36. R. E Morgan, G. Kena, Criminal victimization, 2016 (NCJ, 251150, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, DC, 2017).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Among all groups, black men and boys face the highest lifetime risk of being killed by police.”
- Also stated in: § Results · hedged
“Our models predict that about 1 in 1,000 black men and boys will be killed by police over the life course (96 [77, 120] per 100,000).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We estimate that over the life course, at levels of risk similar to those observed between 2013 and 2018, about 52 [39,68] (90% uncertainty interval) of every 100,000 men and boys in the United States will be killed by police use of force over the life course, and about 3 [1.5, 4.5] of every 100,000 women and girls will be killed by police over the life course.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, this ratio is strongly correlated with age and race and is starkly unequal across racial groups.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.16% of all deaths of Latina women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both Asian/Pacific Islander men and women are more than 50% less likely to be killed by police than are white men and women, respectively.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police use of force accounts for 0.05% of all male deaths in the United States and 0.003% of all female deaths”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.11% of all deaths of white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Racially unequal exposure to the risk of state violence has profound consequences for public health, democracy, and racial stratification (5,(7)(8)(9)11).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites (5,(7)(8)(9)11)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Prior research suggests that despite high contemporary rates, the risk of being killed by police was higher in decades past (37).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] 37. C. T. Ross, A multi-level Bayesian analysis of racial bias in police shootings at the county-level in the United States, 2011 -2014. PLoS One 10, e0141854 (2015). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The meaning of race, age, and gender for police violence emerges in the interactions between how officers perceive an individual's identity and the salience of these classifications for perceptions of criminality, belonging, and dangerousness (1,10,25,39).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] 1. S. Alang, D. McAlpine, E. McCreedy, R. Hardeman, Police brutality and black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am. J. Public Health 107, 662-665 (2017). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] 10. K. G. Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2011). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [25] 25. J. Legewie, M. Schaeffer, Contested boundaries: Explaining where ethnoracial diversity provokes neighborhood conflict. Am. J. Sociol. 122, 125-161 (2016). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] 39. E. P. Monk, The cost of color: Skin color, discrimination, and health among African- Americans. Am. J. Sociol. 121, 396-444 (2015). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43,44).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] 43. L. W. Sherman, Reducing fatal police shootings as system crashes: Research, theory, and practice. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1, 421-449 (2018).
- Not matchedcites [44] 44. R. Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2007).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police violence is a leading cause of death for young men, and young men of color face exceptionally high risk of being killed by police.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“FE provides more comprehensive data on police-involved deaths than do official mortality files (34), has a broader scope than similar unofficial efforts to document deaths, and has been endorsed as a sound source of data by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (47).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [47] 47. National Center for Health Statistics, Multiple cause of death data, 2000 -2017. https://www.nber.org/data/vital-statistics-mortality-data-multiple-cause-of-death. html. Accessed 25 January 2019.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“List- wise deletion of missing cases unrealistically understates uncertainty in our parameter estimates and negatively biases mortality risk estimates (SI Appendix, Fig. S8).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
“with the central assumption that risk profiles observed between 2013 and 2018 remain stable”
“with the key assumption that underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed levels throughout the life course”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“If this pattern holds true nationwide, it means we have underestimated the extent of racial disparities in police use of deadly force based on the racial makeup of the population [2, 3, 26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Prior research suggests the risk of being killed by police is highest for all racial groups between the ages of 20 and 35 [26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
In the citing paper
“The evidence is mixed as to whether CITs are effective at preventing police violence (80, 81).”
From Structural Racism and Suicide Prevention for Ethnoracially Minoritized Youth: A Conceptual Framework and Illustration Across Systems (2022) · cites this paper as [80]
Citations
Cites
mice: Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations in R
Buuren, S. V., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v045.i03 · Cited by 13,870
(2010) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 6,037
Punishment and inequality in America
Joseph, M. (2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-4178 · Cited by 2,066
Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California
Mobley, A. (2008) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.1177/009430610803700238 · Cited by 1,851 · cited 1×
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43, 44).”
BackgroundDemography, Measuring and Modeling Population Processes
Véron, J., Preston, S. H., Heuveline, P., & Guillot, M. (2002) · Population · doi:10.2307/1535065 · Cited by 1,709
Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration
Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240406900201 · Cited by 1,499
Rios, V. M. (2011) · New York University Press eBooks · doi:10.18574/nyu/9780814777114.001.0001 · Cited by 1,270
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- J. Soss, V. Weaver, Learning from Ferguson: Policing, race, and class in American politics. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 20, 565–591 (2017).
- A. S. Vitale, The End of Policing (Verso Books, New York, NY, 2017).
- T. Y. Rocha Beardall “Transactional policing: Reframing local police-community relations through the lens of police employment ” PhD thesis Cornell University Ithaca NY (2019).
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Items 401–500 of 933
Body‐worn cameras and representation: What matters when evaluating police use of force?
Wright, J. E., Gaozhao, D., & Houston, B. D. (2023) · Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/puar.13746 · Cited by 4
Factors influencing public attitudes toward criminal justice system funding
Caines, M., & Brown, W. (2024) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377938.2024.2389972 · Cited by 4
“Black men are also more likely to be killed by police than any other demographic group (Edwards et al., 2019).”
Race and Privacy in Broadcast Police Communications
Venkit, P. N., Graziul, C., Goodman, M., Kenny, S. N., & Wilson, S. (2024) · Proc. ACM Hum. Comput. Interact. · doi:10.1145/3686921 · Cited by 6
“…[33] alright 104 [18] 5 alright 104 [59] north michigan [28] alright 104 [23] male white [17] 6 unit coming [53] 181 charlie [21] event number [23] male black [17] 7 i’m gonna [50] alright 104 [20] go head [20] sir go [14] 8 dont know [42] oh north [17] crime scene [20] gray shirt [13] 9 show…”
The Murder of Black Women in the United States: A Public Health Crisis
Gillum, T. L., Sheffield, A., Norton, A. D., & Hampton, C. J. (2025) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2025.308010 · Cited by 4
Reed, T. A., Wilf, S. B., Millet, V. E., & Wray‐Lake, L. (2025) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12807 · Cited by 5
Mykhalchuk, N. O., Pelekh, Y., Kharchenko, Y., Ivashkevych, E., Ivashkevych, E., Prymachok, L., Хупавцева, Н., & Żukow, W. (2020) · Balneo Research Journal · doi:10.12680/balneo.2020.368 · Cited by 4
Working together to survive and thrive: The struggle for Black lives past and present
Ruffin, H. G. (2020) · Leadership · doi:10.1177/1742715020976200 · Cited by 4
The Morality of Social Movements
Fard, S. H. (2020) · Cited by 4
Truth and Reparation for the U.S. Imprisonment and Policing Regime
Page, J. M., & King, D. S. (2021) · Du Bois Review Social Science Research on Race · doi:10.1017/s1742058x21000357 · Cited by 6
“Researchers have found that Blackmen face a 2.5 times higher risk of being killed by police compared to their White male counterparts, and a 1 in 1000 risk overall (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialHow White American Children Develop Racial Biases in Emotion Reasoning
Ruba, A. L., McMurty, R., Gaither, S. E., & Wilbourn, M. P. (2022) · Affective Science · doi:10.1007/s42761-022-00111-y · Cited by 6
“…reactions have real-world implications for Black Americans, likely playing a role in interactions withWhite police officers (Correll et al., 2002; Edwards et al., 2019; Payne, 2001, 2006) and White healthcare professionals (Burgess et al., 2007; Feagin & Bennefield, 2014; Levine & Ambady, 2013).”
BackgroundAlgrim, K., Herrera, C., Blanc, T., & Boxer, P. (2022) · Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcop.22867 · Cited by 4
Creating a Beloved Community for Black Male Students
Bedford, W., Gibson, E. M., & Sandifer, M. C. (2022) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-9514-5.ch010 · Cited by 4
Boyle, K. M., Jones, P., & Mancik, A. M. (2022) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287221134922 · Cited by 7
“Although Black women have a lower lifetime risk of being killed by police than Black men (Edwards et al., 2019), their risk is greater than women of other racial and ethnic backgrounds (Sawyer, 2019).”
BackgroundJohnson, J. D., Sattler, D. N., Smith-Galeno, B., Ginther, K., Otton, K., & Dierckx, K. (2023) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778012231179210 · Cited by 4
“Not surprisingly, racial and ethnic minority women are more likely to experience more forms of police violence relative to White women (Edwards et al., 2019; Fedina et al., 2018).”
Advancing health equity: The Association of Black Gastroenterologists and Hepatologists
White, P. M., Iroku, U., Carr, R. M., May, F. P., Balzora, S., Antoine-Gustave, V., Anyane‐Yeboa, A., Gray, D. M., Guillaume, A., Issaka, R. B., et al. (2021) · Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology · doi:10.1038/s41575-021-00464-y · Cited by 4
Johnson, T. J. (2022) · Pediatric Annals · doi:10.3928/19382359-20220217-01 · Cited by 5
Association of state-level intoxicated driving laws with firearm homicide and suicide
Tessler, R. A., Haviland, M. J., Bowen, A. G., BOWEN, D., Rivara, F. P., & Rowhani‐Rahbar, A. (2021) · Injury Prevention · doi:10.1136/injuryprev-2020-044052 · Cited by 4
Nix, J., & Shjarback, J. A. (2021) · doi:10.21428/cb6ab371.52abc4c3 · Cited by 4
When "First, Do No Harm" Fails: A Restorative Justice Approach to Workgroup Harms in Healthcare
Flores, P. (2022) · doi:10.22371/05.2022.016 · Cited by 4
Statistical Bias in Racial and Ethnic Disparity Estimates Using BIFSGPreprint
Derby, E., Dowd, C., & Mortenson, J. A. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4733299 · Cited by 4
Activist, relational, and embodied: rethinking sexual citizenship in neoliberal capitalism
Rainer, C. (2023) · Citizenship Studies · doi:10.1080/13621025.2023.2265837 · Cited by 3
“To be more specific, the historically, socially, and economically facilitated condition of disposability and precarity is reflected in explicit acts of violence, such as racist police brutality in the United States (Sweeney 2021; Dillon 2018), being the leading death cause for young men of Color (Edwards, Lee, and Esp…”
BackgroundIntersectional bonds: Delinquency, arrest, and changing family social capital during adolescence
DeMarco, L. M., Leppard, T. R., & Lindsay, S. L. (2024) · Journal of Marriage and the Family · doi:10.1111/jomf.13029 · Cited by 3
Advancing Active Transportation Through Mobility Justice and Centering Community
Baquero, B. I., Berney, R., Romano, E. F. T., Hicks, O., Getch, R., Hall, C. C., Mooney, S. J., Rosenberg, D. E., Shannon, K. L., Saelens, B. E., et al. (2024) · Health Equity · doi:10.1089/heq.2024.0087 · Cited by 3
Anticipatory Violence and Health Among Black Adults in the United States
Semenza, D. C., VanHook, C. R., Baker, N. S., & Savage, B. (2025) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-024-02257-w · Cited by 4
“Black men and women are disproportionately killed by police use of force throughout the country [30].”
Deckard, F. M., Gonzalez, S. M., Irizarry, Y., & Hsu, J. F.-Y. (2025) · Social forces; a scientific medium of social study and interpretation · doi:10.1093/sf/soaf070 · Cited by 3
“…carry the highest exposure risk 2 (Farrell 2024; Figures and Legewie 2019; Prison Policy Initiative 2019), face elevated risk of deadly force (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019; Judson,Orakwue,andAlang2024),androutinelyreport mental health effects of surveillance and interactions with law…”
Wilson, B. L., Jackson, A. N., Brantley, M., & Tindall, J. (2025) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984251386525 · Cited by 5
“These incidents are part of a long, disquieting history of state-sanctioned anti-Black violence, with Black individuals more likely to be stopped, frisked, and killed, even when unarmed (American Civil Liberties Union [ACLU], 2024; Edwards et al., 2019; Thomas et al., 2021; Wilson et al., 2025b).”
Bussey, P. T., & Dunlap, B. (2025) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-025-09870-3 · Cited by 3
“With such data, research has demonstrated that police officers kill approximately 1,100 people each year in the United States (Edwards et al., 2019 ; Ward et al., 2024).”
InfluentialGuttman, Z., Hebner, Y., & Varma, R. (2021) · Journal of Science Policy & Governance · doi:10.38126/jspg180411 · Cited by 3
Law Enforcement Officers’ Bills of Rights and Police Violence
Cunningham, J. P., Feir, D. L., Gillezeau, R., Harvey, M., & Rad, A. N. (2022) · AEA Papers and Proceedings · doi:10.1257/pandp.20221099 · Cited by 4
Drakulich, K., & Pereira, C. (2024) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377938.2024.2351814 · Cited by 4
“…Black men, police use of force is one of the leading causes of death, while for other intersectional sets of identities, the risk is negligible (Edwards et al., 2019)Thus, to generate the kind of broad public concern that may motivate political action, that concern would need to be…”
BackgroundSocial Determinants of Cardiovascular Health
Ogungbe, O., Liu, X., Turkson‐Ocran, R., & Commodore-Mensah, Y. Y. (2024) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-53705-9_2 · Cited by 3
Integrating Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in Inpatient Mental Health Settings
Gallik, C. L., Ramasamy, R., Clifton, R. L., & Al-Mateen, C. S. (2024) · Issues in clinical child psychology · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-62749-1_4 · Cited by 3
Wilson, B. L., Nwachuku, B., Moore, S. E., et al. (2024) · Journal of Progressive Human Services · doi:10.1080/10428232.2024.2398945 · Cited by 3
“Moreover, emerging research also suggests that Black women and girls are disproportionately more likely to be harassed, sexually assaulted, and killed by police officers than white women and girls S. Alang et al. (2023); Edwards et al. (2019).”
Bather, J. R., Burke, E. M., Plepys, C. M., Rajbhandari‐Thapa, J., Furr-Holden, D., & Goodman, M. S. (2024) · Public Health Reports · doi:10.1177/00333549241288140 · Cited by 3
The Influence of Group Identification and Morality in Support for Defunding the Police
Mannumood, M. S. (2024) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287241295656 · Cited by 3
“It is well documented that there is disproportionate police use of force against minorities, especially Black Americans even when they don’t present any objective threat (Edwards et al., 2019; Wertz et al. 2020).”
Guenzel, N., Beseler, C. L., Leventhal, A. M., Cho, J., & Dai, H. D. (2024) · American Journal of Preventive Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.amepre.2024.12.005 · Cited by 3
Olma, J., Sutter, C., & Sülzenbrück, S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1495812 · Cited by 6
“…also dissolved in the post-test but raised questions as to the cause of this unequal pattern: According to literature (cf. Ba et al., 2021; Edwards et al., 2019; Wright and Headley, 2020), the variables age and gender indeed influence the experience of violence and being shot by police;…”
Docile or dangerous? An intersectional analysis of Asian-descent adults’ policing experiences
Baluran, D. A. (2025) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2025.2452907 · Cited by 3
Hate Crime Police Intervention and Neighborhood Context: A Multilevel Analysis
Holder, E., & Ledford, L. S. (2025) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00938548251327417 · Cited by 3
“…show that police resource allocation is also linked to the racial composition of a city, with non-White and economically disadvantaged individuals being more susceptible to police actions like stops, arrests, and use of force (Edwards et al., 2019; Gelman et al., 2007; Paoline et al., 2018).”
The Influence of Workplace Friendships on Police Firearm Use
Ouellet, M., Hashimi, S., Gravel, J., & Dabney, D. A. (2025) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2025.2520545 · Cited by 3
“Police shootings are concentrated not only spatially within specific neighborhoods (Edwards et al., 2019; Ross, 2015) but also socially among close-knit groups of officers (Jain et al., 2022).”
Engineering a Culture of Public Engagement in the Trump Era—Challenging the Status Quo
Nguyen, L. (2021) · International Journal of Engineering Social Justice and Peace · doi:10.24908/ijesjp.v8i1.14211 · Cited by 1
“Furthermore, Black women are approximately 1.4 times more likely to be killed by the police than are white women over the life course (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialGeorge Floyd Jr as a Philosophical Problem
Curry, T. J. (2021) · The Harvard Review of Philosophy · doi:10.5840/harvardreview2021282 · Cited by 3
Police Violence Against Black Protesters: A Public Health Issue
Anderson, J. F., Lee, T. P., Langsam, A. H., & Reinsmith‐Jones, K. (2022) · International Journal of Social Science Studies · doi:10.11114/ijsss.v10i2.5456 · Cited by 4
Profiling, Privacy, and Protection: Ethical Guidance When Police Are Present at Bedside
Griffith, M. F., O'Brien, J., Sergew, A., Wynia, M. K., Carno, M. A., & Akgün, K. M. (2022) · Annals of the American Thoracic Society · doi:10.1513/annalsats.202111-1245ps · Cited by 3
Lodge, E. K., Haji-Noor, Z. M., Gutiérrez, C., Aiello, A. E., Hoyo, C., Emch, M., & Martin, C. L. (2022) · Health & Place · doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2022.102800 · Cited by 3
Avery-Natale, E., & Vila, P. (2022) · Ethnicities · doi:10.1177/14687968221087450 · Cited by 3
“For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death” (Edward et al., 2019: 16793).”
BackgroundTrauma exposure and trauma symptoms as predictors of police perceptions in Latinx youths.
Venta, A. C., Cadenas, G. A., Mercado, A., et al. (2022) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/vio0000437 · Cited by 3
Jackson, A. N. (2022) · Research in social movements, conflicts and change · doi:10.1108/s0163-786x20220000046004 · Cited by 3
Gender and Race Influence Youths’ Responses to a Training on the Law and Safe Police Interactions
Fix, R. L., Fine, A., & Matson, P. A. (2023) · Justice Evaluation Journal · doi:10.1080/24751979.2023.2179418 · Cited by 3
“For instance, studies demonstrate Black men and boys are substantially more likely to experience police violence or to be killed by police during an encounter (Edwards, Lee, & Esposito, 2019; Eith & Durose, 2011).”
BackgroundA Descriptive Analysis of Police Shootings in Houston
Smith, S., Askew, R. L., Ferguson, C. J., Henderson, H., Montgomery, D., & Soyele, O. E. (2023) · Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1007/s11896-023-09585-3 · Cited by 3
“For example, a woman’s lifetime risk of being killed by police use of force has been found to be 20 times lower than that of a man’s (Edwards et al. 2019).”
BackgroundInfluential“Risk Mitigation: Preparation for Police Interaction”
Rabii, W. (2023) · Humanity & Society · doi:10.1177/01605976231174647 · Cited by 3
“Unarmed Blacks are more likely to have force used on them, have a weapon drawn by police, and be shot by police than unarmed Whites (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019; Langston and Durose 2013; Levchak 2017; Ross 2015).”
BackgroundInfluentialLauve‐Moon, T. A., & Park, J. Z. (2023) · Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion · doi:10.1111/jssr.12863 · Cited by 3
A mixed‐methods assessment of off‐duty police shootings in a media‐curated database
Asabor, E. N., Lett, E., Mosely, B., Boone, C. A., Sundaresan, S., Wong, T. A., & Majumder, M. S. (2023) · Health Services Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6773.14170 · Cited by 2
Co-opting “Danger” in Specialized Media for the Police
Gordon, D., & Nadel, P. (2023) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231231180379 · Cited by 3
“This version of danger highlights dynamics like the disproportionate use of lethal force against Black, Native American, and Latino men (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019; Harrell and Davis 2020), as well as “slow violence”: the diffuse race-and class-based harms of policing on individuals, families,…”
BackgroundUnderstanding the impact of police brutality on Black sexually minoritized men
Quinn, K. G., Edwards, T., Johnson, A., Takahashi, L. M., Dakin, A., Bouacha, N., & Voisin, D. R. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116191 · Cited by 5
The ABCs of African American Women: Avoid, Be Respectful, and Comply
Cobbina, J., McCoy, H., & Hernandez, E. A. (2023) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287231198041 · Cited by 4
“In addition, over the life course, one in every 1,000 Black men in the US will be killed by the police (Edwards et al., 2019).”
The substantive representation of men: Intersectionality, masculinities, and men's interests
Murray, R. (2024) · European Journal of Political Research · doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12684 · Cited by 9
Policing the police: Why it is so hard to reform police departments in the United States?
Banerjee, V., Willison, C., & Greer, S. L. (2024) · British Journal of Politics & International Relations · doi:10.1177/13691481241267285 · Cited by 3
“Limited official data exist on police killings and violence against citizens across demographic categories, while estimates of police fatalities rely on journalistic accounts and civilian documentation (Edwards et al., 2019).”
Conceptualizing White Allyship among Undergraduate Students in the United States
Goldie, P. D., Thomas, H. M., Williams, N. J., Reyes‐Portillo, J. A., & Grapin, S. L. (2024) · Journal of College Student Mental Health · doi:10.1080/28367138.2024.2405909 · Cited by 3
“For example, Black people are disproportionately murdered by police, incarcerated and criminalized, unhoused, underpaid, and unemployed (Alexander, 2010; Daly et al., 2017; Edwards et al., 2019; National Alliance to End Homelessness, 2021).”
Juvenile Injuries and Deaths From Shootings by Police in the United States, 2015–2020
Jackson, D. B., Testa, A. M., Semenza, D. C., et al. (2024) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2024.10.011 · Cited by 3
Benedictis-Kessner, J. D., Harvey, M., Jones, D. B., & Warshaw, C. (2025) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.adq8052 · Cited by 4
“Previous work on police use of force suggests that the racial composition of police officers can have a strong effect on racial disparities in policing activity and violence ( 18 , 63 , 64 ).”
Processes of co-response crisis mental health models: a scoping review
Eaton, A. D., Rowe, M. W., Nguyen, A., Lowe, L., Fletcher, K., Adenwala, A., Sudom-Young, S., Rackow, R., Poellet, L., McDonald, M., et al. (2025) · Advances in Mental Health · doi:10.1080/18387357.2025.2522434 · Cited by 5
Technology as Terrorism: Police Control Technologies and Drone Warfare
Wolfendale, J. (2020) · Advanced sciences and technologies for security applications · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-90221-6_1 · Cited by 3
Grassroots efforts to end structural racism throughout the US National Institutes of Health
Lowden, M. R., Matthews, M., Rivers, R. C., Hubbard, L. L. N., Boone, E. M., Muhammad, T., Billingslea, E. N., Rohan, J. P., Simmons, J., & Jackson, S. (2022) · Nature Medicine · doi:10.1038/s41591-021-01646-6 · Cited by 3
Forum: New Perspectives on Transnational Non-State Actors—A Forum Honoring the Work of Thomas Risse
Berger, T., Holzscheiter, A., Jetschke, A., Schmitz, H. P., & Esguerra, A. (2022) · International Studies Review · doi:10.1093/isr/viac039 · Cited by 3
Race and the Probability of Police Injury
Torres, C. E., D’Alessio, S. J., & Stolzenberg, L. (2020) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-020-09300-5 · Cited by 3
The changing face of Black athlete activism
Brown, L. E. C., & Foxx, D. (2021) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781003140290-6 · Cited by 3
“Research shows that the risk of being killed by police for Black men is approximately 2.5 times more likely than their white counterparts; for Black women they are approximately 1.4 times more likely to be murdered by police than white women (Edwards, Lee & Esposito, 2019).”
InfluentialAn Old Theme Revisited: Sociology and Ideology
Wieviorka, M. (2003) · Comparative Sociology · doi:10.1163/156913303100418906 · Cited by 3
Davis, A. P. (2020) · The British Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1093/bjc/azaa101 · Cited by 3
Kim, T. (2019) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3474634 · Cited by 4
Olea, J. L. M., O’Flaherty, B., & Sethi, R. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3857213 · Cited by 3
Tregle, B., Nix, J., & Pickett, J. T. (2021) · CrimRxiv · doi:10.21428/cb6ab371.1ffdeac4 · Cited by 3
Stelter, M., Essien, I., Sander, C., & Degner, J. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/djp8g · Cited by 3
Helfers, R. C., Jones‐Brown, D., & Boyd, L. M. (2022) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-08-2022-200 · Cited by 3
Officer Diversity May Reduce Black Americans’ Fear of the PolicePreprint
Pickett, J. T., Graham, A., Nix, J., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/7mrgp · Cited by 3
Victimhood: The Most Powerful Force in Morality and PoliticsPreprint
Gray, K. J., & Kubin, E. (2024) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/2n9m5 · Cited by 3
The Impact of Affirmative Action Litigation on Police Killings of Civilians
Cox, R., Cunningham, J., & Ortega, A. (2024) · doi:10.3386/w32502 · Cited by 12
“Police violence is a leading cause of death for young men following accidents, suicide, other homicides, heart disease, and cancer (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundThe impact of police shootings on gun violence and civilian cooperation
Mikdash, M., & Zaiour, R. (2024) · Journal of Public Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2024.105189 · Cited by 8
Allen, A. M., Drain, A., Galán, C. A., Goharzad, A., Tung, I., Bekele, B. M., & (SEED), S. F. E. E. A. D. (2024) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916241277554 · Cited by 7
“Importantly, the intensity and scope of police violence against Black men and boys cannot be overstated, as Black men are the most likely to be killed by police compared to any other racial or ethnic group of men and women (Edwards et al., 2019).”
InfluentialExperiences of immigrant survivors of violence with law enforcement
Bryan, S., Chapa, S., & Rauen, A. (2025) · Politics Groups and Identities · doi:10.1080/21565503.2025.2453174 · Cited by 2
Adams, L. B., DeVinney, A., Aljuboori, D., Brooks, J. R., Watts, T., Cook, B. L., Joe, S., Wilcox, H. C., & Thorpe, R. J. (2025) · Archives of Suicide Research · doi:10.1080/13811118.2025.2462528 · Cited by 2
“In the United States, the disparate impact of law enforcement encounters further exacerbates this reality for Black men, who have a 2.5 to 3 times higher likelihood than their White counterparts to experience fatal outcomes at the hands of police (Edwards et al., 2019).”
InfluentialPerceived Racial Discrimination as a Risk Factor for Suicidal Ideation in Black College Students
Rule, A., Molock, S. D., Job, S., & Siff, L. (2025) · Journal of College Student Mental Health · doi:10.1080/28367138.2025.2502934 · Cited by 4
“Historically, Black males have been depicted as violent or barbaric, which in some ways has translated to unfortunate public biases and real-life consequences (Edwards et al., 2019).”
How Subject Gender Shapes the Level and Progression of Police Use of Force
Krajewski, A. T., WORRALL, J. L., & Scales, R. M. (2025) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2025.2550298 · Cited by 2
“There is evidence that officers use greater levels of force against male subjects than female subjects even after statistically controlling for common correlates of police enforcement actions (e.g., Barnes et al., 2015; edwards et al., 2019; Tillyer & engel, 2013; see also, Tapp & Davis, 2022).”
Black in blue networks: social network integration and racial disparities in police use of force
Duxbury, S., Ouellet, M., & Hashimi, S. (2025) · Social Forces · doi:10.1093/sf/soaf151 · Cited by 2
Effect of police interactions on those experiencing homelessness: A scoping review
Barry, A. R., Ockuly, E., Onyeukwu, U. N., French, M., Saquib, S., & Brown, M. M. (2025) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.70025 · Cited by 4
Public opinion on police misconduct: Discrimination and information resistance
Eck, K., & Steinert, C. (2026) · Science Advances · doi:10.1126/sciadv.aeb9501 · Cited by 2
Examining the Modeling Framework of Crime Hotspot Models in Predictive Policing
Goodson, H., & Hoyer-Leitzel, A. (2021) · Journal of Humanistic Mathematics · doi:10.5642/jhummath.202102.28 · Cited by 2
“Using national data collected between 2013 and 2018, [4] found “that people of color face a higher likelihood of being killed by police than do white men and women, that risk peaks in young adulthood, and that men of color face a nontrivial lifetime risk of being killed by police.”
MethodLittle, M. M., Johnson, L. A., & Hager, K. D. (2022) · Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning · doi:10.1016/j.cptl.2022.04.001 · Cited by 2
Should cities disband their police departments?
Boylan, R. T. (2022) · Journal of Urban Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jue.2022.103460 · Cited by 4
“We felt unsafe.” Rethinking risk, harm, and safety in museums
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“Police violence in the United States is a leading cause of death for young men, with a higher lifetime risk of being killed by police for African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men than their white peers (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundDawson, A. J., Blount‐Hill, K., & Hodge, G. (2022) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-08-2021-0119 · Cited by 2
Police Killings: Road Map of Research Priorities for Change
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Houter, K. M. D., & Brooks, M. (2022) · Personnel Assessment and Decisions · doi:10.25035/pad.2022.02.007 · Cited by 3
“High-profile incidents of excessive force against unarmed, Black citizens have called attention to disparities in police use of force, with minorities disproportionately likely to have force used against them and to die as a result of that force (Edwards et al., 2019).”
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“Even though the US is not the only capitalist country in the world, yet “ police in the US kill far more people than police in other advanced industrial democracies ” (Edwards, Hedwig, and Esposito 2019, 16793).”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M.
- Affiliations
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Edwards, Frank
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2019-08-05
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 34
- Pages
- 16793-16798
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC6708348
- OpenAlex
- W2965198355
- Cited by
- 916
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 108 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 151 · 2022: 188 · 2021: 161 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 467.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- police use of force, racial disparities, age-specific risk, sex differences, African American men, Hispanic men, Hispanic women, young men of color, causes of death
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Death, Ethnicity, Female, Humans, Male, Risk, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Police, Racial Groups, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-29, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-29 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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