The DOI matches its Crossref record; 58 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 25 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
We use data on police-involved deaths to estimate how the risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States varies across social groups. We estimate the lifetime and age-specific risks of being killed by police by race and sex. We also provide estimates of the proportion of all deaths accounted for by police use of force. We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course. The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women. Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups. For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.
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Claims the paper makes
44 Own result · 5 Own method · 4 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 4 No basis given · 3 Partly supported · 2 Not checked yet · 2 Own interpretation · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Unofficial media-based methods provide more comprehensive information on police violence than do the limited official data currently available (4,33,34).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Research Strategy and Key Findings
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [4] 4. N. Krieger, J. T. Chen, P. D. Waterman, M. V. Kiang, J. Feldman, Police killings and police deaths are public health data and can be counted. PLoS Med. 12, e1001915 (2015). source
The Summary Points report that The Guardian’s unofficial count of people killed by police was twice the number expected from FBI estimates. “Counting for Accountability” says official mortality data likely underreport police killings and lack timely, detailed reporting. The comparison supports the claim for lethal police violence; the paper does not assess nonlethal incidents. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [33] 33. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Quantifying underreporting of law- enforcement-related deaths in United States vital statistics and news-media-based data sources: A capture -recapture analysis. PLoS Med. 14, e1002399 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusions and the section ‘Estimates of the number of US law-enforcement-related deaths in 2015’ show that the media-based source The Counted recorded substantially more law-enforcement-related deaths than the official NVSS. The paper studies deaths, however, not police violence generally or nonfatal incidents, so it supports the comparison only for fatal cases. Page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While a substantial body of evidence shows that people of color, especially African Americans, are at greater risk for experiencing criminal justice contact and police-involved harm than are whites (14-19)”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. R. Kramer, B. Remster, Stop, frisk, and assault? Racial disparities in police use of force during investigatory stops. Law Soc. Rev. 52, 960-993 (2018). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] 15. R. Brame, M. G. Turner, R. Paternoster, S. D. Bushway, Cumulative prevalence of arrest from ages 8 to 23 in a national sample. Pediatrics 129, 21-27 (2012). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [16] 16. B. Pettit, B. Western, Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69, 151-169 (2004). source
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract says people of color face greater police-involved harm than White people and reports higher police-homicide risk for Black and Latino men than for White men. The paper does not establish the separate claim that people of color face greater risk of criminal justice contact generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [18] 18. A. C. Mooney, S. McConville, A. J. Rappaport, R. Y. Hsia, Association of legal inter- vention injuries with race and ethnicity among patients treated in emergency departments in California. JAMA Network Open 1, e182150-e182150 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report substantially more legal-intervention injuries per capita among Black than white individuals, and the Discussion links much of that difference to higher arrest rates among Black individuals. The paper does not establish greater criminal-justice contact and police-involved harm for people of color generally: it reports substantially lower injury rates for Asian/Pacific Islander individuals and lower injuries per arrest for Hispanic individuals than for white individuals. Its injury findings concern California emergency-department patients, not all forms of police-involved harm. (LLM, conf=0.87)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] 19. D. Knox, W. Lowe, J. Mummolo, The bias is built in: How administrative records mask racially biased policing. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3336338 (April 26, 2019). source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black women are about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than are white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“This ranks police use of force as one of the leading causes of death for young men.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Risk for all groups peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y and declines with age.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black men are about 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police over the life course than are white men.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women's risk of being killed by police use of force is about an order of magnitude lower than men's risk at all ages”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Between the ages of 25 y and 29 y, black men are killed by police at a rate between 2.8 and 4.1 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Asian/Pacific Islander men are killed by police at a rate between 0.3 and 0.6 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.05% of all deaths of Asian/Pacific Islander women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While the methods used in this paper allow for nationally precise age-, race-, and gender-specific mortality estimates, they may mask important subnational variation and changes in risk over time (17,36).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Methods acknowledge that states grouped within the same Census division differ, supporting the concern that geographic grouping may obscure subnational variation. The paper uses data spanning 2012 to early 2018, but the passages do not assess changes in risk over time or say that the methods mask them. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not matchedcites [36] 36. R. E Morgan, G. Kena, Criminal victimization, 2016 (NCJ, 251150, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, DC, 2017).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Among all groups, black men and boys face the highest lifetime risk of being killed by police.”
- Also stated in: § Results · hedged
“Our models predict that about 1 in 1,000 black men and boys will be killed by police over the life course (96 [77, 120] per 100,000).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We estimate that over the life course, at levels of risk similar to those observed between 2013 and 2018, about 52 [39,68] (90% uncertainty interval) of every 100,000 men and boys in the United States will be killed by police use of force over the life course, and about 3 [1.5, 4.5] of every 100,000 women and girls will be killed by police over the life course.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, this ratio is strongly correlated with age and race and is starkly unequal across racial groups.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.16% of all deaths of Latina women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both Asian/Pacific Islander men and women are more than 50% less likely to be killed by police than are white men and women, respectively.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police use of force accounts for 0.05% of all male deaths in the United States and 0.003% of all female deaths”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.11% of all deaths of white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Racially unequal exposure to the risk of state violence has profound consequences for public health, democracy, and racial stratification (5,(7)(8)(9)11).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites (5,(7)(8)(9)11)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Prior research suggests that despite high contemporary rates, the risk of being killed by police was higher in decades past (37).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] 37. C. T. Ross, A multi-level Bayesian analysis of racial bias in police shootings at the county-level in the United States, 2011 -2014. PLoS One 10, e0141854 (2015). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The meaning of race, age, and gender for police violence emerges in the interactions between how officers perceive an individual's identity and the salience of these classifications for perceptions of criminality, belonging, and dangerousness (1,10,25,39).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] 1. S. Alang, D. McAlpine, E. McCreedy, R. Hardeman, Police brutality and black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am. J. Public Health 107, 662-665 (2017). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] 10. K. G. Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2011). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [25] 25. J. Legewie, M. Schaeffer, Contested boundaries: Explaining where ethnoracial diversity provokes neighborhood conflict. Am. J. Sociol. 122, 125-161 (2016). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] 39. E. P. Monk, The cost of color: Skin color, discrimination, and health among African- Americans. Am. J. Sociol. 121, 396-444 (2015). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43,44).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] 43. L. W. Sherman, Reducing fatal police shootings as system crashes: Research, theory, and practice. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1, 421-449 (2018).
- Not matchedcites [44] 44. R. Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2007).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police violence is a leading cause of death for young men, and young men of color face exceptionally high risk of being killed by police.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“FE provides more comprehensive data on police-involved deaths than do official mortality files (34), has a broader scope than similar unofficial efforts to document deaths, and has been endorsed as a sound source of data by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (47).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [47] 47. National Center for Health Statistics, Multiple cause of death data, 2000 -2017. https://www.nber.org/data/vital-statistics-mortality-data-multiple-cause-of-death. html. Accessed 25 January 2019.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“List- wise deletion of missing cases unrealistically understates uncertainty in our parameter estimates and negatively biases mortality risk estimates (SI Appendix, Fig. S8).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
“with the central assumption that risk profiles observed between 2013 and 2018 remain stable”
“with the key assumption that underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed levels throughout the life course”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“If this pattern holds true nationwide, it means we have underestimated the extent of racial disparities in police use of deadly force based on the racial makeup of the population [2, 3, 26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Prior research suggests the risk of being killed by police is highest for all racial groups between the ages of 20 and 35 [26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
In the citing paper
“The evidence is mixed as to whether CITs are effective at preventing police violence (80, 81).”
From Structural Racism and Suicide Prevention for Ethnoracially Minoritized Youth: A Conceptual Framework and Illustration Across Systems (2022) · cites this paper as [80]
Citations
Cites
mice: Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations in R
Buuren, S. V., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v045.i03 · Cited by 13,870
(2010) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 6,037
Punishment and inequality in America
Joseph, M. (2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-4178 · Cited by 2,066
Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California
Mobley, A. (2008) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.1177/009430610803700238 · Cited by 1,851 · cited 1×
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43, 44).”
BackgroundDemography, Measuring and Modeling Population Processes
Véron, J., Preston, S. H., Heuveline, P., & Guillot, M. (2002) · Population · doi:10.2307/1535065 · Cited by 1,709
Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration
Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240406900201 · Cited by 1,499
Rios, V. M. (2011) · New York University Press eBooks · doi:10.18574/nyu/9780814777114.001.0001 · Cited by 1,270
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- J. Soss, V. Weaver, Learning from Ferguson: Policing, race, and class in American politics. Annu. Rev. Polit. Sci. 20, 565–591 (2017).
- A. S. Vitale, The End of Policing (Verso Books, New York, NY, 2017).
- T. Y. Rocha Beardall “Transactional policing: Reframing local police-community relations through the lens of police employment ” PhD thesis Cornell University Ithaca NY (2019).
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Acknowledging the past: trauma informed social justice & dance movement therapy
Jorden, T. L. (2021) · Body Movement and Dance in Psychotherapy · doi:10.1080/17432979.2021.1896579 · Cited by 8
“According to Edwards et al. (2019) police brutality is a leading cause of death for young men in the North America.”
BackgroundPublic Criminology and Media Debates Over Policing
Schneider, C. J. (2022) · Studies in Social Justice · doi:10.26522/ssj.v16i1.2694 · Cited by 8
“Evidence further indicates that police violence is a leading cause of death for young, racialized people in the U.S. (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundWhich Police Departments Want Reform? Barriers to Evidence-Based Policymaking
Goerger, S., Mummolo, J., & Westwood, S. J. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Political Science · doi:10.1017/xps.2022.21 · Cited by 8
Introduction to the Special Issue: Racism of Omission
Kramer, R. A., Ray, V. E., & Bonilla‐Silva, E. (2025) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spaf006 · Cited by 9
Racial Polarization in Attitudes towards the Criminal Legal System
Lee, K. H., Gutiérrez, C., & Pettit, B. (2023) · Social Problems · doi:10.1093/socpro/spad051 · Cited by 8
Motley, R., Patel, P., Roh, H., et al. (2024) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380241270078 · Cited by 7
“…Latinx) are three to four times more likely to be killed by police officer(s) and two to three times more likely to experience police threat or use of non-fatal violence than their counterparts from the dominant White ethnic group (Edwards et al., 2019; Hyland et al., 2015; Motley & Joe, 2018).”
The Role of Technical Communicators in Confronting Injustice—Everywhere
Agboka, G. Y., & Dorpenyo, I. K. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication · doi:10.1109/tpc.2021.3133151 · Cited by 7
A Model to Assess the Feasibility of 911 Call Diversion Programs
Midgette, G., Spreen, T. L., Porter, L. C., Reuter, P., & Hitchens, B. K. (2024) · Justice Quarterly · doi:10.1080/07418825.2023.2300444 · Cited by 6
“For example, police are more likely to use force in interactions with Blacks than with whites (Edwards et al., 2019; Fryer, 2019; Knox et al., 2020; Hoekstra & Sloan, 2022).”
Homicides involving Black victims are less likely to be cleared in the United States
Campedelli, G. M. (2024) · Criminology · doi:10.1111/1745-9125.12362 · Cited by 8
“…police stops (Kramer & Remster, 2018; Legewie, 2016; Pierson et al., 2020), disproportionate use of force against civilians (Chalfin et al., 2020; Edwards et al., 2019; Streeter, 2019), and concerns over discrimination and fairness perils posed by modern crime control technologies such as…”
Kharchenko, Y., & Kurytsia, D. (2021) · Collection of Research Papers Problems of Modern Psychology · doi:10.32626/2227-6246.2021-51.215-240 · Cited by 7
Allgood, K. L., Fleischer, N., Morenoff, J. D., Assari, S., & Needham, B. L. (2023) · Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities · doi:10.1007/s40615-023-01523-7 · Cited by 7
“The risk score is calculated using a Cox proportional hazards model including the following variables in the prediction model: sex, blood pressure, hypertension medication use, diabetes status, smoking status, and body mass index (BMI); see Pencina et al., (2009) 26, 58, 128, 129].”
Community Relations and Policing: A Communication Accommodation Theory Perspective
Hill, S. L., Giles, H., & Maguire, E. R. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-41096-3_13 · Cited by 9
Practical Resources for Talking to Children with Autism about Systemic Racism
Melendez, J. L., Tan, I. M. C., Lau, J. C., & Leung, J. (2020) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-020-00500-4 · Cited by 7
No Justice and No Peace: The Ongoing Traumatic Stress of Families Bereaved by Law Enforcement
Balbus, A., & Kantorová, D. (2021) · Journal of Trauma & Dissociation · doi:10.1080/15299732.2020.1869091 · Cited by 7
Visual Framing Effects of News Coverage of Police Use of Deadly Force on Intergroup Relationships
Henderson, L., Forster, R. T., Kalili, L., et al. (2021) · Howard Journal of Communications · doi:10.1080/10646175.2021.1927261 · Cited by 7
“Framing police use of deadly force against African Americans Law enforcement use of lethal force is legal in the U.S. when employed as a last resort in response to an immediate threat to the police officer or another person.”
BackgroundInfluentialRace and the Criminal Justice system
Murphy, K. (2002) · PsycEXTRA Dataset · doi:10.1037/e437592008-001 · Cited by 8
Improving Justice, Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion in Research on Sexual Abuse Perpetration
Fanniff, A. M., & Alexander, A. A. (2022) · Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1177/10790632221091193 · Cited by 8
“These may include characteristics/identities that are legally protected from discrimination in the United States, such as sexual orientation, gender identity, disability, religion, and veteran status (Equal Opportunity for Individuals with Disabilities (n.d.) (42 U.S. Code 126); Civil Rights Act (n.d.) (42 U.S. Code 2…”
BackgroundInfluentialInvestments in Policing and Community Safety
Chalfin, A. J. (2024) · Annual Review of Criminology · doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-111523-122746 · Cited by 7
Fryberg, S. A., & Eason, A. E. (2024) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.14193 · Cited by 5
“Native Americans face similarly high rates of police violence (Edwards et al., 2019), yet they are largely omitted from discussions about the need for police reform.”
Policing as a Structural Determinant of Health
Rock, E., Beletsky, L. A., & del Pozo, B. (2025) · Annual Review of Public Health · doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth-071723-012319 · Cited by 6
“Studies have increasingly recognized the links between disparities in the criminal justice system and health disparities (1, 14).”
Carroll, J. J., Mullins, C., Burnham-Lemaire, G., Korycinski, H., Pierce, H., Martinez, M., & El‐Sabawi, T. (2020) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1080/10826084.2020.1846199 · Cited by 6
Legal descriptions of police officers affect how citizens judge them
Spruill, M., & Lewis, N. A. (2022) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2022.104306 · Cited by 6
Criminal Justice Reform and Inequality
Wakefield, S. (2022) · American Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1007/s12103-022-09717-1 · Cited by 7
“, 2019), and the relative risk of experiencing police violence (Edwards et al., 2019) offer additional examples of new claims being made about the nature of crime and punishment.”
BackgroundInfluentialHarris, L. K. K., Conklin, J., Woods‐Giscombé, C. L., & Cortés, Y. I. (2023) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2022-066946 · Cited by 6
Policing Asian communities in the United States: a systematic literature review and discussion
Lim, H., Lawton, B. A., & Sloan, J. J. (2023) · Policing An International Journal · doi:10.1108/pijpsm-04-2023-0053 · Cited by 6
Zhao, Y., He, D., & Reszka, S. (2023) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287231218706 · Cited by 6
“…examined the issue with diverse measurement like police caused death, use of deadly force and police fatal shootings from divergent theoretical perspectives (e.g., Campbell et al., 2018; Edwards et al., 2019; Gaston et al., 2021; Holmes et al., 2019; Jennings & Rubado, 2017; Legewie & Fagan, 2016).”
Quinn, K. G., Walsh, J. L., Johnson, A., Edwards, T., Takahashi, L. M., Dakin, A., Bouacha, N., & Voisin, D. R. (2024) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-024-04278-2 · Cited by 6
“…gay and bisexual men found that Black men In the United States (US), the institution of policing is rooted in a history of slave patrols, racism, violence, and centuries of oppression that disproportionately victimize Black men and contributes to numerous physical and mental health threats [1, 2].”
Dyer, L., Judson, J., Jahn, J. L., & Wallace, M. E. (2024) · Journal of Urban Health · doi:10.1007/s11524-024-00871-x · Cited by 6
Mourning for Strangers: Black Women, Sequelae, and the Digital Afterlife of Police Violence
Gonzalez, S. M., Buggs, S. G., & Jackson, J. (2024) · Feminist Criminology · doi:10.1177/15570851241258316 · Cited by 9
“Research has found that white Americans are not only less likely to be victims of police brutality (Bryant-Davis et al., 2017; Edwards et al., 2019) but are less likely to be psychologically impacted by police violence (Alang et al., 2021; Eichstaedt et al., 2021) or express empathy towards black…”
Headley, A. M., Baker, D. B., & Kang, I. (2025) · PAR. Public Administration Review · doi:10.1111/puar.13927 · Cited by 4
Disha, I., Eren, C. P., & Leyro, S. (2020) · Journal of Criminal Justice Education · doi:10.1080/10511253.2020.1841255 · Cited by 7
“Doing Our Part”: What Motivates Black Family Engagement in an After-School Program
Case, A. (2020) · Journal of Youth Development · doi:10.5195/jyd.2020.887 · Cited by 6
“Unlike their non-Black peers, one of the leading causes of death for Black youth, and especially for Black boys, is homicide (Heron, 2019), often at the hands of police (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundFirearm injuries during legal interventions: Nationwide analysis
Liasidis, P., Lewis, M. R., Jakob, D. A., Inaba, K., & Δημητριάδης, Δ. (2021) · The Journal of Trauma: Injury, Infection, and Critical Care · doi:10.1097/ta.0000000000003146 · Cited by 5
“Recent reports on law enforcementrelated firearm injuries and fatalities have investigated the epidemiological and situational characteristics of these incidents, the impact of firearm legislations and gun ownership on the rate of these events,(17,18) and whether racial biases are associatedwith the use of deadly forc…”
BackgroundCall to Action for Promoting Social Justice
Chisholm‐Burns, M. A., Imhoff, L., Johnson, L. A., Spivey, C. A., & Welage, L. S. (2021) · American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education · doi:10.5688/ajpe8889 · Cited by 8
Race, class, and gender identity: implications for transgender people’s police help seeking
Lee, Y., & Santiago, L. E. (2022) · Police Practice and Research · doi:10.1080/15614263.2022.2085102 · Cited by 6
“According to Edwards et al. (2019) analysis of police-involved deaths in the U.S. between 2012– 2018, Black men’s police homicide risk is 3–4 times higher and Latino men’s risk is 1.3–2 times higher than that of white men.”
BackgroundInfluentialHazards of anti‐Blackness in the United States
Rowell‐Cunsolo, T. L., Bellerose, M., & Haile, R. (2022) · International Journal of Social Welfare · doi:10.1111/ijsw.12547 · Cited by 6
Semenza, D. C., Grosholz, J. M., Isom, D. A., & Novisky, M. A. (2022) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605221113023 · Cited by 6
“Although the precise nature of the relationship between race and police use of force remains under debate (Hollis & Jennings, 2018; Shjarback & Nix, 2020), numerous studies have found that police officers are more likely to use force and take lethal action against Black and Indigenous People of Color (BIPOC) than thei…”
BackgroundEmbedding Social Work into a Police Department in the South
Stauss, K. A., Plassmeyer, M., Shepard, T., Greathouse, S., & Hanby, P. (2023) · Journal of Forensic Social Work · doi:10.15763/issn.1936-9298.2023.7.2.59-74 · Cited by 6
“Furthermore, people with mental health conditions are almost 16 times more likely to be shot and killed by police (Edwards, et al., 2019; Saleh, et al., 2018).”
BackgroundBefore and after George Floyd and Breonna Taylor: citizen perceptions of a ‘Reasonable Officer’
McClure, K. A., Sweet, D. M., & Atkinson, D. J. (2023) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2023.2279335 · Cited by 5
Osborn, M. (2023) · Critical Criminology · doi:10.1007/s10612-023-09733-5 · Cited by 6
Corporate Responsibility and Repair for Anti-Black Racism
Mustafa, T. C. (2024) · Business Ethics Quarterly · doi:10.1017/beq.2024.9 · Cited by 6
“Compared to their white counterparts, Black men and women are nearly 250 percent and 140 percent, respectively, more likely to be killed by police (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019, 16794).”
Burt, I., & Tosado, L. A. (2024) · The Journal of Humanistic Counseling · doi:10.1002/johc.12226 · Cited by 6
The use of lethal force by police in USA: Mortality metrics of race and disintegration (2015-2019)
Paull, J. D. (2020) · Journal of Social and Development Sciences · doi:10.22610/jsds.v10i4(s).3045 · Cited by 6
“Nationwide data on police killings in the USA are not collected by any US Federal Government agency (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundAnti-Oppressive Restorative Justice: Behavior Analysis in Alternatives to Policing
Leland, W., & Stockwell, A. (2021) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-021-00633-0 · Cited by 6
Sturges, H. A., Flick, C., Provenza, K. R., & Nunez, N. L. (2022) · Behavioral Sciences & the Law · doi:10.1002/bsl.2561 · Cited by 8
Underrepresented in medicine: Making surgical training anti-racist
Chao, G. F., Zakrison, T. L., Oyetunji, S. O., Gaston-Hawkins, L., Sosa, J. A., Joseph, B. A., & Lindeman, B. M. (2022) · The American Journal of Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.amjsurg.2022.02.056 · Cited by 6
Racially Motivated Police Brutality Is a Community Public Health Issue in the United States
Burrell, D. N., Burton, S. L., & McGrath, G. E. (2022) · International Journal of Health Systems and Translational Medicine · doi:10.4018/ijhstm.315296 · Cited by 6
“When reviewing the mean lifespan odds of African Americans being killed by police, the results are 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialWorking to Improve Youth-Police Interactions: A Pilot Evaluation of a Program for Young People
Fix, R. L., Jindal, M., & Fine, A. (2023) · Journal of Prevention · doi:10.1007/s10935-023-00736-0 · Cited by 6
“Data from Fatal Encounters found that the risk of being killed by the police was 3.2 to 3.5 times higher for Black men and boys compared to White men and boys (Edwards & Esposito, 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialCivic Responses to Police ViolencePreprint
Ang, D., & Tebes, J. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3722241 · Cited by 6
Auguste, E. E., Bowdring, M. A., Kasparek, S. W., et al. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/f5yk6 · Cited by 6
The Next Generation of Clinical Psychological Science: Moving Toward AntiracismPreprint
Rodriguez-Seijas, C. A., McClendon, J., Wendt, D. C., Novacek, D. M., Ebalu, T. I., Hallion, L. S., Hassan, N. Y., Huson, K., Spielmans, G. I., Folk, J. B., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/mhdx8 · Cited by 6
Racial Protests and Credit Access
García, R. E., & Ortega, A. (2024) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w32477 · Cited by 6
.lSexual Orientation and Experiences with Police Contact in Canada.
Testa, A. M., Jackson, D. B., Toro, J. D., Karbeah, J., Nagata, J. M., & Ganson, K. (2023) · Annals of Epidemiology · doi:10.1016/j.annepidem.2023.12.002 · Cited by 5
Kaufman, J. M. (2024) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2024.2409347 · Cited by 5
“These situations can escalate into police taking physical action, and Black and Latino men are more likely to have non-lethal and lethal force used against them (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019; Morrow, White, and Fradella 2017).”
The U.S. Criminal Legal System and Population Health
Cao, M., Esposito, M. H., & Lee, H. E. (2025) · Current Epidemiology Reports · doi:10.1007/s40471-025-00358-6 · Cited by 5
“We now have new evidence of large racial disparities in the risk of being killed by police, such that 1 in every 1,000 Black men can be expected to be killed by law enforcement over the life course, compared to 1 in every 2,500 White men [3].”
Self-citationMoore, K. M., Wesp, L., Luebke, J. M., & Kako, P. M. (2025) · Western Journal of Nursing Research · doi:10.1177/01939459251377945 · Cited by 5
Siddik, M. A. B., Islam, M. S., Hussen, S. M., & Syfullah, M. K. (2026) · Dialogues in Health · doi:10.1016/j.dialog.2026.100277 · Cited by 5
“For instance, in the United States found that young adults, particularly males, are at a higher risk of fatal encounters with law enforcement due to their increased involvement in public protests, higher rates of unemployment, and general societal marginalization [27].”
Motley, R., Williamson, E., & Quinn, C. R. (2024) · Social Work in Public Health · doi:10.1080/19371918.2024.2341838 · Cited by 5
“…(96 deaths per 100,000) and women (5.4 deaths per 100,000) are substantially more likely to be killed by police officer(s) than their Latino/a (53 per 100,000, and 2 per 100,000 respectively) and White (39 per 100,000, and 2 per 100,000 respectively) counterparts (Edwards, Lee, & Esposito, 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialThe Sociology of Police Behavior
Ray, R., Powelson, C., Fuentes, G., & Doan, L. (2024) · Annual Review of Sociology · doi:10.1146/annurev-soc-030222-031902 · Cited by 5
Luck, A. N. (2024) · Demography · doi:10.1215/00703370-11555025 · Cited by 5
Sheehan, B. E., Totonchi, D. A., & Derlega, V. J. (2024) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/00957984241307181 · Cited by 5
“Additionally, consistent with the increased rate of fatal killings of Black Americans, Latinxs, and Native Americans also experience signi fi cantly higher rates of police-involved deaths compared to White Americans (Edwards et al., 2019; Lett et al., 2021; Sharara et al., 2021).”
Swartz, M. S., Moore, M., & Lazar, K. (2025) · Psychiatric Services · doi:10.1176/appi.ps.20240345 · Cited by 6
A history of US police violence
Bassett, M. T. (2021) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(21)01153-3 · Cited by 5
Race, Evidence, and Epistemic Injustice
Rose, J. G. (2021) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780198859307.003.0026 · Cited by 5
Finsel, C., Grote, M. W., Libby, M. K., et al. (2021) · Families in Society The Journal of Contemporary Social Services · doi:10.1177/10443894211063133 · Cited by 5
“…political mobilization followed the stark exposure of state violence against African Americans, American Indians, Asian Americans, Pacific Islanders, Latinx people, and other communities, and the uneven impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on those communities (F. Edwards et al., 2019; Hansen, 2017).”
BackgroundRepresentation and Anti-Racist Policymaking in U.S. Cities during COVID-19
Farris, E. M., Holman, M. R., & Sullivan, M. E. (2022) · Representation · doi:10.1080/00344893.2021.2017335 · Cited by 5
Asafo, D. (2022) · Legalities · doi:10.3366/legal.2022.0030 · Cited by 5
Cooley, E., Brown-Iannuzzi, J. L., Payne, B. K., Steele, J., & Cipolli, W. (2022) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302221119982 · Cited by 5
Fessler, D. M. T., Merrell, W. N., Holbrook, C., & Ackerman, J. M. (2022) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2022.11.003 · Cited by 5
Effects of police ethics training on ethnic prejudice and social dominance orientation
Droogenbroeck, F. V., Spruyt, B., & Ivković, S. K. (2023) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/13684302221115083 · Cited by 7
“The existing literature shows that Black men in the United States are twice as likely to be killed by the police during their lifetime than White men (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundThyden, N. H., Slaughter‐Acey, J., Widome, R., Warren, J. R., & Osypuk, T. L. (2023) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2023.116161 · Cited by 5
Psychological Rehabilitation of Combatants with Mental Disorders and Mental Trauma
Kharchenko, Y., & Онуфрієва, Л. А. (2023) · Collection of Research Papers Problems of Modern Psychology · doi:10.32626/2227-6246.2023-61.51-73 · Cited by 5
Brownlow, B. N., Harmon, K., Pek, J. C. X., Cheavens, J. S., Moore, J. L., & Coccaro, E. F. (2024) · Clinical Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/21677026231217312 · Cited by 5
“For example, Black individuals are 5 times more likely to report experiencing police brutality than White Americas (DeSilver et al., 2020; Edwards et al., 2019) and 2.8 times more likely to die from lethal force by law enforcement despite being less likely to be armed than White victims (DeGue et…”
InfluentialPolice Shootings in Canada: An Empirical Analysis and Call for Data
Simpson, R., & Nix, J. (2024) · Crime & Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00111287231226182 · Cited by 6
“Each year in the USA, for example, we have learned that police officers kill—regardless of justification—roughly 1,000 people by gunfire (Edwards et al., 2019; Schwartz & Jahn, 2020).”
Motley, R., Williamson, E., Pieterse, A. L., & Harris, M. G. (2024) · Emerging Adulthood · doi:10.1177/21676968241240182 · Cited by 6
“…Black emerging adults and subjecting them to targeted brutality and fatalities at the hands of law enforcement (Alang, 2020; Carvalho et al., 2022; Edwards et al., 2019; Gellman et al., 2007; Levchak, 2016; Motley & Rogers, 2021; Obasogie & Newman, 2017; Russell-Brown, 2021; Sharif et al., 2022;…”
BackgroundCommunity Contexts Predicting Fatal Police Shootings of Youth, 2014–2018
Rafail, P. (2024) · Youth & Society · doi:10.1177/0044118x241245145 · Cited by 6
“These results are striking and are strong evidence that the racial disparities in FPS for youth are either comparable or exceeding the rates of police shootings for adults (e.g., Edwards et al., 2019).”
InfluentialCastillo, I. E. (2024) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00938548241262489 · Cited by 6
“Criminologists argue the racialization of crime and criminal offending among Black and Hispanic individuals may be a key mechanism to how and why these groups experience more violence (Edwards et al., 2019).”
Life Years Lost to Police Encounters in the United States
Wrigley‐Field, E. (2020) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023120948718 · Cited by 5
Othering, Intersectionality, and Americanism
Harrichand, J. J. S., Anandavalli, S., & West‐Olatunji, C. A. (2021) · Advances in religious and cultural studies (ARCS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-7235-1.ch008 · Cited by 5
Chillar, V. F. (2021) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/00224278211030964 · Cited by 5
Sheehan, B. E., Derlega, V. J., Maduro, R. S., & Totonchi, D. A. (2022) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1002/ajcp.12587 · Cited by 6
“This concern by Black Americans is warranted given that a recent model predicted that 1 in 1000 Black men and boys will be killed by police (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundA Sociobehavioral Model of Racism against the Black Community and Avenues for Anti-Racism Research
Belisle, J., Payne, A. N., & Paliliunas, D. (2022) · Behavior Analysis in Practice · doi:10.1007/s40617-022-00702-y · Cited by 5
Mask mandates, race, and protests of summer 2020
Rahman, R., Azhar, S., Wernick, L. J., DeVylder, J., Maschi, T. M., Cohen, M., & Hopwood, S. (2022) · Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work · doi:10.1080/15313204.2022.2070896 · Cited by 5
“Black men are 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police over their life course than white men and women; similarly, Black women are about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialMotley, R., Chen, Y., Masood, Y., Finner, A., & Joe, S. (2023) · Social Work Research · doi:10.1093/swr/svac032 · Cited by 5
Everuss, L. (2023) · Distinktion Journal of Social Theory · doi:10.1080/1600910x.2023.2220933 · Cited by 5
“Furthermore, Black men are around 2.5 times and Black women about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than their white counterparts (Edwards, Lee, and Esposito 2019, 16794).”
BackgroundInfluentialStereotypes, Crime, and Policing
O’Flaherty, B., & Sethi, R. (2023) · Annual Review of Criminology · doi:10.1146/annurev-criminol-022422-120610 · Cited by 8
Maksuta, K. D., Zhao, Y., & Yang, T. (2024) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2024.102985 · Cited by 5
Petteway, R. J. (2021) · Health Promotion Practice · doi:10.1177/1524839921996263 · Cited by 5
“…Gee & Ford, 2011), COVID-19 (Egede & Walker, 2020; Laster Pirtle, 2020; McClure et al., 2020; Petteway, 2020; Yearby & Mohapatra, 2020), racialized police violence (Edwards et al., 2019; Krieger et al., 2015; Mapping Police Violence, n.d.; Mesic et al., 2018), and climate change (Krieger, 2020).”
Stansfield, R., Aaronson, E., & Okulicz‐Kozaryn, A. (2021) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2021.101828 · Cited by 5
The Law and Science of Eyewitness EvidencePreprint
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Metadata
- Authors
- Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M.
- Affiliations
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Edwards, Frank
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2019-08-05
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 34
- Pages
- 16793-16798
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC6708348
- OpenAlex
- W2965198355
- Cited by
- 916
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 108 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 151 · 2022: 188 · 2021: 161 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 467.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- police use of force, racial disparities, age-specific risk, sex differences, African American men, Hispanic men, Hispanic women, young men of color, causes of death
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Death, Ethnicity, Female, Humans, Male, Risk, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Police, Racial Groups, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-29, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-29 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
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