The DOI matches its Crossref record; 58 of the 58 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 5 of the 25 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race–ethnicity, and sex
Open accessPublished version of a preprint
Abstract
We use data on police-involved deaths to estimate how the risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States varies across social groups. We estimate the lifetime and age-specific risks of being killed by police by race and sex. We also provide estimates of the proportion of all deaths accounted for by police use of force. We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers. Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course. The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women. Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups. For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.
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Claims the paper makes
44 Own result · 5 Own method · 4 Sources not found · 4 No full text of the sources · 4 No basis given · 3 Partly supported · 2 Not checked yet · 2 Own interpretation · accuracy not yet measured
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“Unofficial media-based methods provide more comprehensive information on police violence than do the limited official data currently available (4,33,34).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Research Strategy and Key Findings
What the sources say
- Supportedcites [4] 4. N. Krieger, J. T. Chen, P. D. Waterman, M. V. Kiang, J. Feldman, Police killings and police deaths are public health data and can be counted. PLoS Med. 12, e1001915 (2015). source
The Summary Points report that The Guardian’s unofficial count of people killed by police was twice the number expected from FBI estimates. “Counting for Accountability” says official mortality data likely underreport police killings and lack timely, detailed reporting. The comparison supports the claim for lethal police violence; the paper does not assess nonlethal incidents. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [33] 33. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Quantifying underreporting of law- enforcement-related deaths in United States vital statistics and news-media-based data sources: A capture -recapture analysis. PLoS Med. 14, e1002399 (2017). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Conclusions and the section ‘Estimates of the number of US law-enforcement-related deaths in 2015’ show that the media-based source The Counted recorded substantially more law-enforcement-related deaths than the official NVSS. The paper studies deaths, however, not police violence generally or nonfatal incidents, so it supports the comparison only for fatal cases. Page numbers were not supplied in our copy. (LLM, conf=0.84)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While a substantial body of evidence shows that people of color, especially African Americans, are at greater risk for experiencing criminal justice contact and police-involved harm than are whites (14-19)”
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [14] 14. R. Kramer, B. Remster, Stop, frisk, and assault? Racial disparities in police use of force during investigatory stops. Law Soc. Rev. 52, 960-993 (2018). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [15] 15. R. Brame, M. G. Turner, R. Paternoster, S. D. Bushway, Cumulative prevalence of arrest from ages 8 to 23 in a national sample. Pediatrics 129, 21-27 (2012). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [16] 16. B. Pettit, B. Western, Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration. Am. Sociol. Rev. 69, 151-169 (2004). source
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Abstract says people of color face greater police-involved harm than White people and reports higher police-homicide risk for Black and Latino men than for White men. The paper does not establish the separate claim that people of color face greater risk of criminal justice contact generally. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Partly supportedcites [18] 18. A. C. Mooney, S. McConville, A. J. Rappaport, R. Y. Hsia, Association of legal inter- vention injuries with race and ethnicity among patients treated in emergency departments in California. JAMA Network Open 1, e182150-e182150 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Results report substantially more legal-intervention injuries per capita among Black than white individuals, and the Discussion links much of that difference to higher arrest rates among Black individuals. The paper does not establish greater criminal-justice contact and police-involved harm for people of color generally: it reports substantially lower injury rates for Asian/Pacific Islander individuals and lower injuries per arrest for Hispanic individuals than for white individuals. Its injury findings concern California emergency-department patients, not all forms of police-involved harm. (LLM, conf=0.87)
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [19] 19. D. Knox, W. Lowe, J. Mummolo, The bias is built in: How administrative records mask racially biased policing. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3336338 (April 26, 2019). source
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black women are about 1.4 times more likely to be killed by police than are white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“This ranks police use of force as one of the leading causes of death for young men.”
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y for all groups.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Risk for all groups peaks between the ages of 20 y and 35 y and declines with age.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Black men are about 2.5 times more likely to be killed by police over the life course than are white men.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Women's risk of being killed by police use of force is about an order of magnitude lower than men's risk at all ages”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Between the ages of 25 y and 29 y, black men are killed by police at a rate between 2.8 and 4.1 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Asian/Pacific Islander men are killed by police at a rate between 0.3 and 0.6 per 100,000”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.05% of all deaths of Asian/Pacific Islander women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 12
- The quote only partly states this claim. 2
- Probably not a substantial claim. 4
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“While the methods used in this paper allow for nationally precise age-, race-, and gender-specific mortality estimates, they may mask important subnational variation and changes in risk over time (17,36).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Partly supportedcites [17] 17. F. Edwards, M. H. Esposito, H. Lee, Risk of police-involved death by race/ethnicity and place, United States, 2012 -2018. Am. J. Public Health 108, 1241-1248 (2018). sourceExperimental — accuracy not yet measured
The Methods acknowledge that states grouped within the same Census division differ, supporting the concern that geographic grouping may obscure subnational variation. The paper uses data spanning 2012 to early 2018, but the passages do not assess changes in risk over time or say that the methods mask them. (LLM, conf=0.82)
- Not matchedcites [36] 36. R. E Morgan, G. Kena, Criminal victimization, 2016 (NCJ, 251150, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Washington, DC, 2017).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Partly supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Risk is highest for black men, who (at current levels of risk) face about a 1 in 1,000 chance of being killed by police over the life course.”
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
“Among all groups, black men and boys face the highest lifetime risk of being killed by police.”
- Also stated in: § Results · hedged
“Our models predict that about 1 in 1,000 black men and boys will be killed by police over the life course (96 [77, 120] per 100,000).”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
- Also stated in: § Results · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that African American men and women, American Indian/Alaska Native men and women, and Latino men face higher lifetime risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The average lifetime odds of being killed by police are about 1 in 2,000 for men and about 1 in 33,000 for women.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We find that Latina women and Asian/Pacific Islander men and women face lower risk of being killed by police than do their white peers.”
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“We estimate that over the life course, at levels of risk similar to those observed between 2013 and 2018, about 52 [39,68] (90% uncertainty interval) of every 100,000 men and boys in the United States will be killed by police use of force over the life course, and about 3 [1.5, 4.5] of every 100,000 women and girls will be killed by police over the life course.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, this ratio is strongly correlated with age and race and is starkly unequal across racial groups.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
boostedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.16% of all deaths of Latina women”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Both Asian/Pacific Islander men and women are more than 50% less likely to be killed by police than are white men and women, respectively.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- The authors state this as an assumption: Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police use of force accounts for 0.05% of all male deaths in the United States and 0.003% of all female deaths”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Results
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“0.11% of all deaths of white women.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Latinx
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
In the paper
“Racially unequal exposure to the risk of state violence has profound consequences for public health, democracy, and racial stratification (5,(7)(8)(9)11).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites (5,(7)(8)(9)11)
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Not matched
In the paper
“Prior research suggests that despite high contemporary rates, the risk of being killed by police was higher in decades past (37).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [37] 37. C. T. Ross, A multi-level Bayesian analysis of racial bias in police shootings at the county-level in the United States, 2011 -2014. PLoS One 10, e0141854 (2015). source
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“The meaning of race, age, and gender for police violence emerges in the interactions between how officers perceive an individual's identity and the salience of these classifications for perceptions of criminality, belonging, and dangerousness (1,10,25,39).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [1] 1. S. Alang, D. McAlpine, E. McCreedy, R. Hardeman, Police brutality and black health: Setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am. J. Public Health 107, 662-665 (2017). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [10] 10. K. G. Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 2011). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [25] 25. J. Legewie, M. Schaeffer, Contested boundaries: Explaining where ethnoracial diversity provokes neighborhood conflict. Am. J. Sociol. 122, 125-161 (2016). source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [39] 39. E. P. Monk, The cost of color: Skin color, discrimination, and health among African- Americans. Am. J. Sociol. 121, 396-444 (2015). source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: fails — It may be too vague to check against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may be too vague to check against evidence. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43,44).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [43] 43. L. W. Sherman, Reducing fatal police shootings as system crashes: Research, theory, and practice. Annu. Rev. Criminol. 1, 421-449 (2018).
- Not matchedcites [44] 44. R. Gilmore, Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (University of California Press, Berkeley, CA, 2007).
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Police violence is a leading cause of death for young men, and young men of color face exceptionally high risk of being killed by police.”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Discussion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“FE provides more comprehensive data on police-involved deaths than do official mortality files (34), has a broader scope than similar unofficial efforts to document deaths, and has been endorsed as a sound source of data by the Bureau of Justice Statistics (47).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [34] 34. J. M. Feldman, S. Gruskin, B. A. Coull, N. Krieger, Killed by police: Validity of media- based data and misclassification of death certificates in Massachusetts, 2004-2016. source
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites [47] 47. National Center for Health Statistics, Multiple cause of death data, 2000 -2017. https://www.nber.org/data/vital-statistics-mortality-data-multiple-cause-of-death. html. Accessed 25 January 2019.
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“List- wise deletion of missing cases unrealistically understates uncertainty in our parameter estimates and negatively biases mortality risk estimates (SI Appendix, Fig. S8).”
§ Risk of being killed by police use of force in the United States by age, race-ethnicity, and sex > Materials and Methods
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The authors state this as an assumption.
Underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed 2013–2018 levels throughout the life course.
“with the central assumption that risk profiles observed between 2013 and 2018 remain stable”
“with the key assumption that underlying age-specific mortality risks remain constant at observed levels throughout the life course”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“If this pattern holds true nationwide, it means we have underestimated the extent of racial disparities in police use of deadly force based on the racial makeup of the population [2, 3, 26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe cited source says what the claim attributes to it.
In the citing paper
“Prior research suggests the risk of being killed by police is highest for all racial groups between the ages of 20 and 35 [26].”
From Factors associated with police shooting mortality: A focus on race and a plea for more comprehensive data (2021) · cites this paper as [26]
In the citing paper
“The evidence is mixed as to whether CITs are effective at preventing police violence (80, 81).”
From Structural Racism and Suicide Prevention for Ethnoracially Minoritized Youth: A Conceptual Framework and Illustration Across Systems (2022) · cites this paper as [80]
Citations
Cites
mice: Multivariate Imputation by Chained Equations in R
Buuren, S. V., & Groothuis-Oudshoorn, K. (2011) · Journal of Statistical Software · doi:10.18637/jss.v045.i03 · Cited by 13,870
(2010) · University of Twente Research Information · Cited by 6,037
Punishment and inequality in America
Joseph, M. (2007) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.44-4178 · Cited by 2,066
Golden Gulag: Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California
Mobley, A. (2008) · Contemporary Sociology A Journal of Reviews · doi:10.1177/009430610803700238 · Cited by 1,851 · cited 1×
“Austerity in social welfare and public health programs has led to police and prisons becoming catchall responses to social problems (43, 44).”
BackgroundDemography, Measuring and Modeling Population Processes
Véron, J., Preston, S. H., Heuveline, P., & Guillot, M. (2002) · Population · doi:10.2307/1535065 · Cited by 1,709
Mass imprisonment and the life course: Race and class inequality in U.S. incarceration
Pettit, B., & Western, B. (2004) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.1177/000312240406900201 · Cited by 1,499
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Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 601–700 of 933
McIntosh, D. L., & Pasco, M. C. (2024) · Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/casp.2885 · Cited by 1
Yi, Y., Enns, P. K., & Wildeman, C. (2024) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231241277436 · Cited by 1
“…disproportionately high and invasive levels of criminal legal contact and surveillance in predominantly Black and lower income neighborhoods (e.g., Edwards et al. 2019; Sewell et al. 2016) suggests these disruptions depress political participation, detrimental to collective efficacy and social…”
Addressing discretization-induced bias in demographic prediction
Dong, E., Schein, A., Wang, Z., & Garg, N. (2025) · PNAS Nexus · doi:10.1093/pnasnexus/pgaf027 · Cited by 2
“…example: auditing disparities such as in lending and policing [Andrus et al., 2021, Chen et al., 2019, Consumer Financial Protection Bureau, 2014, Edwards et al., 2019, Pierson et al., 2020, Zhang, 2018], making more fair and accurate decisions in voterfile-based polling and turnout campaigns…”
BackgroundHow behavioral science interventions can disrupt the cycle of bias in AI-assisted police work
Dittmann, A. G., Dobson, K. S. H., & Schweitzer, S. (2024) · Behavioral Science & Policy · doi:10.1177/23794607241300788 · Cited by 1
“23 In the context of AI-assisted police work, such an outcome means that at Step 3, report writing, the information fed back into the system will be based on officers’ self-fulfilling prophecies and will further confirm the biases in the existing data set.”
Kammerer, E. F., & Kirkpatrick, K. J. (2025) · Journal of Public Affairs Education · doi:10.1080/15236803.2025.2476865 · Cited by 1
“For Black men, police violence is a significant threat; 1 out of every 1,000 Black men are likely to be killed by police in their lifetime (Edwards et al., 2019).”
Can AI help make California police policy human centered?
Coleman, C., Liu, J., & Williams, C. K. (2025) · AI & Society · doi:10.1007/s00146-025-02298-7 · Cited by 2
“For Black men the chance of being killed by police is 1 in every 1,000 (Edwards et al. 2019).”
Khan, F. U., Smith, J. M., & Meyer, F. (2025) · International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership · doi:10.22230/ijepl.2025v21n1a1473 · Cited by 1
Motley, R., Irie, W. C., & Wilson, B. L. (2025) · Journal of Ethnic & Cultural Diversity in Social Work · doi:10.1080/15313204.2025.2535970 · Cited by 1
“Black individuals in the U.S. experience disproportionately high levels of exposure to police use-of-force compared to other ethnic groups (Edwards et al., 2019; R. O. Motley & Joe, 2018Naghavi, 2021).”
InfluentialPolice-related Stress and Carotid Intima Media Thickness Among African American Women
Hoggard, L. S., Murden, R., Fields, N. D., Erving, C. L., Udaipuria, S., Moore, R. H., Vaccarino, V., Quyyumi, A. A., Barinas‐Mitchell, E., & Lewis, T. T. (2025) · Psychosomatic Medicine · doi:10.1097/psy.0000000000001428 · Cited by 1
Implementation of Non-Armed First Responder Programs; Optimization by Centering Program Perspectives
Cullins, Z., Roach, M., Mayfield, M., Poteat, T., & Brinkley‐Rubinstein, L. (2025) · Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1080/08964289.2025.2560319 · Cited by 2
“5,6 Due to historical disinvestment in community mental health and social services, law enforcement typically serves as front-line responders to mental health crises.”
Tsai, M. (2003) · Comparative Sociology · doi:10.1163/156913303100418799 · Cited by 1
Morrison, D. M., & Porter-Webb, E. (2020) · Berkeley Review of Education · doi:10.5070/b89146431 · Cited by 1
The Antiracist, Propatient Pledge of Emergency Medicine
Martin, I. B. K., & Hargarten, S. W. (2020) · Academic Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1111/acem.14081 · Cited by 1
“According to Edwards et al.(4) in a recent study, one in 1,000 African-American men will die at the hands of a law enforcement officer—twice the rate of men in general in the United States.”
BackgroundInfluentialOperationalising Minimum Force: The Need for Evidence
Evans, R., & Farmer, C. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-9526-4_5 · Cited by 1
The Pandemic Within the Pandemic of 2020: A Spiritual Perspective
Audate, T. S. (2020) · Essential clinical social work series · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-61442-3_28 · Cited by 1
“According to a study conducted by Edwards, Lee, and Esposito (2019), excessive force rendered by police is a leading cause of death among men of color, and Black, Latinx, American Indian, and Alaska Native men and women are all at higher lifetime risk of the same than are white men and women.”
BackgroundLaw Enforcement/Policing and Fear
Moreland-Capuia, A. R. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-73436-7_6 · Cited by 1
Áldozathibáztatás kisebbségi csoportok sértettjeivel szemben
Bárd, P., & Szontagh, V. A. (2021) · Szociológiai szemle · doi:10.51624/szocszemle.2021.1.2 · Cited by 1
“Az ilyen jellegű túlkapások gyakoriságát több kriminológiai kutatás is vizsgálta, és az adatok azt mutatják, hogy az Amerikai Egyesült Államokban a fekete férfiaknak 2,5-szer nagyobb az esélyük, hogy egy rendőr keze által haljanak meg, mint a fehér férfiaknak (Edwards et al. 2019).”
Dear White People in Emergency Medicine
Brown, C., Brown, K., Brown, I., & Daniel, R. (2021) · Annals of Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.annemergmed.2021.08.004 · Cited by 2
The Difficult But Important Journey From Here to Equality
Lewis, N. A. (2021) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2021.1971458 · Cited by 1
“Although the racial and socioeconomic inequities in the pandemic (Laster Pirtle, 2020), racially disproportionate use of force by the police (Edwards et al., 2019), and other inequities were unsurprising to Black and brown Americans, they were surprising to others.”
BackgroundYear without End: Primatology in 2020
Schmitt, C. A. (2021) · American Anthropologist · doi:10.1111/aman.13661 · Cited by 1
Injured black men's perceptions of the recovery environment
Bruce, M. M., Ulrich, C. M., Webster, J. L., & Richmond, T. S. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114608 · Cited by 1
Racial segregation and struggle for social justice in the U.S. society
Lymar, M., & Ahieieva-Karkashadze, V. (2021) · American History & Politics Scientific edition · doi:10.17721/2521-1706.2021.11.1 · Cited by 1
Arana‐Chicas, E., Jones, B., Cartujano‐Barrera, F., et al. (2021) · Journal of Health Ethics · doi:10.18785/jhe.1701.02 · Cited by 1
The “Wear and Tear” of African Americans in Louisiana with HIV/AIDs: More Than HIV.
(2020) · doi:10.46940/sphrj.02.1009 · Cited by 1
“5 times more likely than white men to be killed by the police [52].”
BackgroundHow Should Clinicians Determine a Traumatized Patient’s Readiness to Return to Work?
Moses, T. E. H., & Javanbakht, A. (2022) · The AMA Journal of Ethic · doi:10.1001/amajethics.2022.111 · Cited by 1
Black Muslim perceptions of police respectfulness and stop legitimacy
Khan, A., & Smith, M. (2022) · Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice · doi:10.1080/15377938.2022.2078917 · Cited by 1
“…found that police-citizen interactions are qualitatively different for African Americans, as they are also disproportionately more likely to be the victims of police brutality (Ajilore & Shirey, 2017; Kramer & Remster, 2018; Lyle & Esmail, 2016) and homicide (Edwards et al., 2019; Siegel, 2020).”
BackgroundStructural racism, health disparities, and opportunities for PA practice
Fleming, S., Coplan, B. H., Najera, D. B., et al. (2022) · JAAPA · doi:10.1097/01.jaa.0000830184.37551.b5 · Cited by 1
Cheng, H. (2022) · Western Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/10570314.2022.2109721 · Cited by 1
“For example, Americans of Southeast and East Asian backgrounds reported COVID-19 related discriminatory encounters (Stop AAPI Hate Reporting Center, 2020), while facing less police brutality when compared to Black, Latinx, as well as Native Americans (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundStereotypes and the Administration of Justice
O’Flaherty, B., & Sethi, R. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-33-4016-9_10-1 · Cited by 1
Davis, J. J., Sánchez, L. D., Jarman, A. F., Macias‐Konstantopoulos, W., Newberry, J. A., Patel, S., Hess, E. P., & Burner, E. (2023) · Academic Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1111/acem.14742 · Cited by 1
Stereotypes and the Administration of Justice
O’Flaherty, B., & Sethi, R. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-19-4166-5_10 · Cited by 1
5 A Krip-Hop Theory of Disabled Black Men
Moore, L. F., & Kitossa, T. (2021) · University of Alberta Press eBooks · doi:10.1515/9781772125559-009
Racial Disparities in Policing
Burke, K. C., Najdowski, C. J., & Stevenson, M. C. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197549513.013.26 · Cited by 1
Which Police Departments Want Reform? Barriers to Evidence-Based PolicymakingPreprint
Goerger, S., Mummolo, J., & Westwood, S. J. (2019) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3497106 · Cited by 1
A Note on Posttreatment Selection in Studying Racial Discrimination in PolicingPreprint
Zhao, Q., Keele, L. J., Small, D. S., & Joffe, M. M. (2020) · arXiv (Cornell University) · doi:10.17863/cam.73832 · Cited by 1
Stereotypes and the Administration of JusticePreprint
O’Flaherty, B., & Sethi, R. (2021) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3808745 · Cited by 1
Mitchell, J., & Chihaya, G. K. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4001792 · Cited by 1
Lawrence, R. G. (2022) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197616543.002.0004 · Cited by 1
Racial Protests and Credit AccessPreprint
García, R. E., & Ortega, A. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4304551 · Cited by 1
Strom, K. J., & Wire, S. E. (2024) · doi:10.3768/rtipress.2024.rr.0050.2401 · Cited by 1
“Police use of force represents not only a signifcant public safety priority but also a matter of public health (Edwards et al. 2019).”
BackgroundInfluentialMaksuta, K. D., & Martin, B. T. (2024) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-323-96023-6.00050-6 · Cited by 1
Racial Protests and Credit AccessPreprint
García, R. E., & Ortega, A. (2024) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4833958 · Cited by 1
CRIME AND CONTROL AFTER A HIGH-PROFILE CASE OF POLICE VIOLENCEPreprint
Midgette, G., & Lafree, G. D. (2025) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.5140297 · Cited by 1
DM-FS: A Comprehensive Database on Death-Modulated Fatal Shootings
Verrey, J. (2025) · Scientific Data · doi:10.1038/s41597-025-04649-x · Cited by 1
The Next Generation of Clinical Psychological Science: Moving Toward AntiracismPreprint
Rodriguez-Seijas, C. A., McClendon, J., Wendt, D. C., Novacek, D. M., Ebalu, T. I., Hallion, L. S., Hassan, N. Y., Huson, K., Spielmans, G. I., Folk, J. B., et al. (2023) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/mhdx8_v1 · Cited by 1
Grass Roots Healthcare at CHOP: Lessons Learned About Community and Black Lives Matter
Shriki, J. E. (2020) · Current Problems in Diagnostic Radiology · doi:10.1067/j.cpradiol.2020.08.010
Decolonizing Nature: The Potential of Nature to Heal
Nesmith, A. A., Schmitz, C. L., Machado‐Escudero, Y., Billiot, S., Forbes, R. A., Powers, M. C. F., Buckhoy, N., & Lawrence, L. A. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-55951-9_8
Post-/De-colonial Psychoanalysis: Critical Border Psychology
Beshara, R. K. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-56743-9_1
Shafer, S. L. (2020) · ASA Monitor · doi:10.1097/01.asm.0000722084.73402.27
Goldstein, J. (2020) · Dialogues in Human Geography · doi:10.1177/2043820620974907
“A recent study finds that 1 out of every 1,000 black men in America can expect to be murdered by the police (Edwards et al., 2019).”
BackgroundThe Public Health Crisis of Law Enforcement’s Over-Use of Force
Helander, M. E., & Brown, A. M. (2020) · Syracuse University Libraries (Syracuse University)
The Science of Statistics in Victimhood Culture: Dignity and DishonorPreprint
Mandel, I. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3666383
Forepaugh, C. (2021) · Digital Scholarship - UNLV (University of Nevada Reno) · doi:10.34917/22110052
“Edwards et al. (2019) estimate that the lifetime risks of being killed during a police interaction is 2.5 times higher for African American men and 1.3 to 1.4 times higher for Hispanic men than for Caucasian men.”
BackgroundInfluentialPublic Freedom under Unrestricted Patrolling
Waraah, U. (2019) · Journal of Emerging Technologies and Innovative Research
¿Qué es la cultura? Sistemas de gente, lugares, y prácticasPreprint
Causadías, J. M. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/w4a2e
Police violence in Israel towards people with mental disabilities
Weishut, D. J. N., Benninga, Z., Aitchison, L. R., & Steiner‐Birmanns, B. (2021) · Ethics Medicine and Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.jemep.2021.100694
Police Homicide: Race and Ethnicity
Henderso, C., Quinn, A., Reasons, C. E., Salas, V. M., Vinson, J., & BrittneyWarf (2021) · ScholarWorks (Central Washington University)
Hamzavi, N. (2021) · cIRcle (University of British Columbia) · doi:10.14288/1.0400136
AEM special issue on (in)equity in emergency medicine
Chisolm‐Straker, M., Quest, T. E., & Kline, J. A. (2021) · Academic Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1111/acem.14364
“My Proof of Life”: HIV as Reification of Black Metaphysics in Danez Smith’s Homie
Juncosa, T. R. (2021) · 452ºF Revista de Teoría de la literatura y Literatura Comparada · doi:10.1344/452f.2021.25.8
Schulz, J. M. (2021) · Iowa State University Digital Repository (Iowa State University) · doi:10.31274/etd-20210609-169
Welch, T. J. (2021) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000004409
Duvall, R. N., & Gonzalez, D. (2021)
Angelis, J. T. D., & Rosenthal, R. A. (2021) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/paab041
Unchecked Power: Police Killings of Racial Minorities and the Mentally Ill
Armstrong, R., & Cantoni, N. P. (2021) · Illinois Digital Environment for Access to Learning and Scholarship (University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign)
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.003.0007
What do newspapers talk about when they talk about Muslims?
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.003.0006
United States newspaper coverage of Muslims
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.003.0003
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.003.0005
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.003.0002
Kind of Blue: Lamenting the Failures of Settler Christianity in a Twilight Civilization
Kuipers, R. A. (2021) · Toronto Journal of Theology · doi:10.3138/tjt-2021-0062
Bleich, E., & van der Veen, M. (2021) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197611715.003.0004
Does geography matter? comparing maternal stressors to birth outcomes
Reed, A. E. (2021) · MOspace Institutional Repository (University of Missouri) · doi:10.32469/10355/88144
Mitchell, J., & Chihaya, G. K. (2021) · SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/fu8rg
Geller, J., & Kollapally, N. M. (2021) · IEEE International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedicine (BIBM) · doi:10.1109/bibm52615.2021.9669617
“Minorities might be more vulnerable to bad policing and excessive use of force, leading to a greater need for health interventions [4, 5].”
BackgroundBlume, A. W. (2022) · International and cultural psychology/International and cultural psychology series · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-92825-4_4
Gföellner, B. (2020) · JAAAS Journal of the Austrian Association for American Studies · doi:10.47060/jaaas.v2i1.23
Technology as Terrorism: Police Control Technologies and Drone WarfarePreprint
Wolfendale, J. (2020) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3697298
“For young men of color, police use of force is among the leading causes of death” [15].”
BackgroundThe effect of victim race on jurors’ perceptions of lethal use of force
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Investigating Values in Discourse: Ideals and Social Plans
Hanst, L. (2021) · PDXScholar (Portland State University) · doi:10.15760/etd.7754
Recovering the US Mental Healthcare System
Davidson, C. A., Altamirano, O., de Mamani, A. W., & Stacy, M. A. (2022) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108951760.001
SOCIAL JUSTICE AND EVOLUTIONARY BIOLOGY: A NATURAL FIT
Upegui, D. I. (2021) · Digital Commons - URI (University of Rhode Island) · doi:10.23860/diss-upegui-david-2021
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Belisle, J., Payne, A. N., & Paliliunas, D. (2022) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/akq6h
The Critical Movement for Youth Inclusion
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Beliefs About Law Enforcement Scale: A Revalidation Study
Lemieux, C. M., Kim, Y. K., & Chaney, C. (2022) · Journal of the Society for Social Work and Research · doi:10.1086/720331
Carroll, J. J., Mullins, C., Burnham-Lemaire, G., et al. (2022) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4058721
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Kramer, R. A., & Remster, B. (2021) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/zuych
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Leland, W., & Stockwell, A. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/wq9g2
Identifying and Addressing Structural Racism
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Inequality in Life Lost to Violence in the United StatesPreprint
Roehrkasse, A. F. (2021) · doi:10.31235/osf.io/29n67
Racial Profiling and Second-Class Citizenship
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“In fact, over the life course, about 1 in every 1000 Black men can expect to be killed by police, 2.5 times more likely than White males (Edwards et al., 2019).”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Edwards, F., Lee, H., & Esposito, M.
- Affiliations
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- Washington University in St. Louis (US)
- University of Michigan (US)
- Corresponding author
- Edwards, Frank
- Venue
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
- Publisher
- National Academy of Sciences
- Published
- 2019-08-05
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 34
- Pages
- 16793-16798
- ISSN
- 0027-8424 (ISSN-L)
- 1091-6490
- PMC
- PMC6708348
- OpenAlex
- W2965198355
- Cited by
- 916
- References
- 54
- Citations by year
- 2026: 108 · 2025: 100 · 2024: 113 · 2023: 151 · 2022: 188 · 2021: 161 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 7
- FWCI
- 467.55
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- bronze
- doi.org
- Locations
- Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (publishedVersion)
- Europe PMC (PubMed Central) (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- RePEc: Research Papers in Economics (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion)
- SocArXiv (OSF Preprints) (submittedVersion, cc-by)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Political Science and International Relations › Policing Practices and Perceptions
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Criminal Justice and Corrections Analysis
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
- Keywords
- police use of force, racial disparities, age-specific risk, sex differences, African American men, Hispanic men, Hispanic women, young men of color, causes of death
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Death, Ethnicity, Female, Humans, Male, Risk, Socioeconomic Factors, United States, Police, Racial Groups, Young Adult
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
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